Criminal Evidence Law - Evidential and Legal Burden Essay

Criminal Evidence Law - Evidential and Legal Burden - Essay Example In this case, the prosecution has a duty to link the facts surrounding the two parties’ visit to the deceased’s house and to his eventual murder. The facts should prove on the balance of probabilities that actions of the accused may have caused the death. A fact-finder working with the prosecution would be tasked to collect the facts and link them to the crime. A jury would then have the final say on whether or not the murder case should proceed. The evidential burden in this case, which the jury will be tasked to determine is as follows: a) the accused visited Denzil’s house over an unsettled debt; b) William allegedly remained outside, possibly to scare people away within his imitation of a gun while Altin went in; c) Altin immediately attacked the victim; d) the victim died of the injuries sustained in the attack. In this case, there is no gap in the facts, which could have been prompted by a fall, for instance, on his way to the hospital1. Apart from the evidential burden, Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), providing for the right to the fair trial requires the prosecution to prove beyond the balance of probabilities that the actions of the two parties accused of Denzil’s murder have a legal basis. In this case, the prosecutor must prove that the alleged actions of Altin had a substantial cause on the Denzil’s death, but does not necessarily need to be the only or largely the cause of the death. This implies the two could be charged with the murder of Denzil if the prosecution established that his injury by the accused substantially contributed to his death whether or not he had underlying health conditions. A judge would be tasked to determine whether the legal burden can sustain trial. Altin would find it hard to prove that he was acting in self-defence because he intentionally went to Denzil’s place. In addition, the immediacy of the attack lends credence to a pre-planned murder whose time had come.  

Should Disabled Veterans Get Preferential Treatment over Better Essay Example for Free

Should Disabled Veterans Get Preferential Treatment over Better Essay Affirmative Action efforts were started in 1964 to end the long history of overlooking qualified people of color and women from higher education. Affirmative Action sets standards for a business or office of admissions, so that a white man does not have the upper hand over an equally or greater educated minority’s, female or disabled veteran. The initial way the government tried to justify Affirmative Action was to develop a human resource approach: first identifying the problem, which is racism, sexism and handicapped stereo typing then establishing the solution. The intent of the Disabled Veterans Affirmative Action Program (DVAAP) is to help cut down on discrimination in the work place, despite the fact that some believe that (DVAAP) is a form of reverse discrimination. In contrast, the first goal of (DVAAP) was to help disabled veterans across the nation receive the entitlements they deserve when they apply for employment in the Federal Government. I believe that Charles J.  Muhl was trying to say that the Affirmative Action techniques have the advantage of not only persuading employers not to discriminate when hiring or accepting, but to expand employment and educational opportunities for groups that might be just as deserving but less fortunate. Therefore the (DVAAP) is legitimate because it does reduce discrimination in the work place and related areas such as various jobs on Government Installations and Federal Offices. In the end, it should in no way be abolished. A California Superior Court had upheld the states use of 3 affirmative action programs but struck down 2 of them owned by minorities, woman and disabled veterans. The program that the Superior Court upheld was intended to remedy discrimination and according to proposition 209 there was no discrimination towards minorities or disabled veterans. Those two programs mentioned nothing about minorities or disadvantaged veterans only disadvantaged businesses. I feel that the Superior Court rejected the states laws because it seemed like they felt it was reverse discrimination and unconstitutional. Affirmative action is becoming highly controversial. Right now Proposition 209, in California, which bans all programs involving race and sex preferences run by the state, has passed but it will not be put into total action due to some questions of constitutionality. But one must ask themselves â€Å"Is the DVAAP a new form of Affirmative Action? † The DVAAP has employed about 93,000 disabled veterans during 2005. Without programs like this, there would have been about 93,000 unemployed veterans’ just collecting disability and unemployment, resulting in more tax money being spent on disabled veterans. With this system they are able to make a valued contribution to society and not become a financial burden on the rest of the economy. Mark Rosenbaum of the Southern California Branch of the American Civil Liberties Union declared an argument. Proposition 209 should be declared unconstitutional because it singles out women and minorities at a time when discrimination still exists, Now let just think for a minute, How many of these Disabled Veterans are women or minorities? Also take into consideration if you add some sort of combat wound to that Veteran, what would you have without the help of the (DVAAP)? I will tell you. People would look at those brave Veterans that put there lives on the line and call them a â€Å"BUM† These people are not bums, they are fallen heroes that need help. Discrimination does still exist in our not so perfect world, and so far various forms of Affirmative Action is our only solution; so why is California trying so hard to put an end to it? Abolishing Affirmative Action is not the answer. President Clinton spoke out in his speech for National Archives: Let me be clear: Affirmative Action has been good for the United States we should have a simple slogan: Mend it, but dont bend it. The problem with the Affirmative Action debate could be that those arguing for it do a poor job defending their position. Due to the fact that Affirmative Action has been in place for more than a generation, critics have lost sight of how the job market and higher education looks without Affirmative Actions stabilizing effects. They could possibly make a stronger stance if they pointed out that there are thousands of injured veterans (woman and minorities) in the current ongoing war trying to readjust back to civilian life. They are also highly qualified for many forms of employment. (Section 4214(a)(1) of the title 38, United States Code) Many critics that were not hired for jobs that they felt that they deserved seem to think that Affirmative Action is a cleverly disguised form of racism and ineffective, but taking a look at what happens when there is no Affirmative Action, such as in court case’s around the United States reverse discrimination suit. Some courts are ruling to ban the race card, gender card and disabled veterans card when applying for government jobs. I would like to point out The whole reason that there are handicapped preferences is that the handicapped do not meet the standards applied to others, if they were require that they meet the standards then they would not have gotten in. I have a handy capped person that works with me and when I asked him how did he get his job, he told me I clearly got in through an Affirmative Action program, and I dont apologize for it Im proud of it. † It got me in, but it didnt get me out, didnt take the bar exam for me, didnt pass the two hundred and eighty five or so pieces of legislation Ive authored. He is a perfect example of Affirmative Action, a handicapped minority getting the chance to prove himself. Affirmative Action did not get him where he is today it just simply got his foot in the door. Affirmative Action gave him a chance he would not have gotten if Affirmative Action did not exist. Although sad, but true we do not live in a perfect, color-blind country. I believe It is simply wrong to play politics with the issue of Affirmative Action and divide our country at a time when, if we really want to change things, we have to be united. I have had experience with Affirmative Action, nearly twenty years of it now, and I know it works. In conclusion, Affirmative Action, just as it started, is trying to create unity within the real world, which is not perfect and there is lots of handicapped stereo typing. So why are we still asking the question of why we are using various forms of Affirmative Action? Proven that it abolishing Affirmative Action would be a negative effect to the work place, why should we go back to the days of handicapped stereo typing, why not move forward still some until we can create unity. We should seek not just equality as a right and a theory, but equality as a result. Maybe the world hasnt exactly found equality as a result, but with the Disabled Veterans Affirmative Action Program, the world is a lot closer to equality than without it.

Modernist Preoccupations With Progress: An Exploration

Modernist Preoccupations With Progress: An Exploration The term ‘Modernism relies upon notions of progress in that it is defined by an ‘artistic and literary superiority of moderns over ancients. The ‘modern era enjoyed scientific, technological and social progress, whilst the uncivilized and primitive past was very much left behind. That is not to say that modern artists neglected to recognise their debt to the past and although modernists tended to reject notions of time as linear, the causal development of time meant modern artists and writers often looked to the past at least as a tool for comparison. It could be said that Modernist art reacted to the rapidly changing and dehumanised world of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries by actually challenging common notions of progress and demanding a reappraisal of the direction in which society was moving. The artistic movement known as Cubism originated in the minds and art of Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque, and at first stood as an experiment in style alongside avant-garde developments in western art. Like many of the movements under the ‘Modernist umbrella, Cubism sought to move away from established notions of art; Cubisms roots are in realism, but Cubist artists also challenged the convention of naturalism and the illusion of three-dimensional seeing. This was initially done by presenting a two-dimensional picture surface with flat forms and tonal colours, which aimed to bring together the mind and the eye without trying to fool the viewer into seeing something other that the ‘reality of the picture surface. In this way, Cubism presented a more accurate reality than previous artistic movements that used the convention of three-dimensional representation, because we do not see the world from a singular perspective. Whilst self-confessedly indebted to his Impressionist forebears, Picasso changed modern notions of art by ‘reappraising [his] fundamental materials, to redesign composition and remake form. What was seen as a breakdown in society, with the advent of mechanised warfare and impoverishment of the human spirit, encouraged Cubist artists to present a new way of looking at the world. Cubist techniques of presenting both sides of a chair or all the perspectives of a models face served to create an art in which normal notions of vision and thought are challenged; are we not able to move around an object and see it form all sides? Cubist artists first introduced collage as a tool to communicate their desire to bring life and art closer together, and so allow society to progress through ideas within art. Collages were paintings with objects attached to the canvas; Picasso stuck pieces of newspaper, stamps and rope to his canvas in order to ‘break down the boundaries between art and life, causing the viewer to ponder various kinds and degrees of artifice. That small pieces of ‘real life were appearing on the canvas showed the Cubists increasingly innovative style and the lengths to which they would go to move away from art as artifice and present a new type of artistic ‘progress that attempted to bring observers away from the constructed emotional portrayal of the artistic subject (as in Impressionism) and towards an art which gives ‘more attention to sensuous and tactile quality. Critics of Cubism blamed Picasso and his peers for becoming more concerned with geometry than with art; the r esponse was that science and emotion are brought together in Cubism to create a more rounded and stimulating experience of life than previously offered by other art forms. Whilst the Modernists obsession with moving away from past conventions and creating new intellectual depths may have seemed extreme, this preoccupation with ‘progress was a direct response to what they saw as the devaluation of art, literature and society in general throughout the Victorian period. Techniques used by the Cubist artists to comment on and re-evaluate art included ‘fragmentation, multiple perspectives, and juxtaposition, which were part of the standard Modernist repertoire. Modernist artists wanted to create and communicate new ways of experiencing art and therefore the world.There was very much a feeling that art could not only reflect and represent life, but also lead to changes within society; by challenging notions of progress, especially in the wake of the war and mechanisation, Cubist artists created their own type of progress, which was very much involved with the way the mind and the eye worked. Cubist art was controversial and little understood and any contemporary commentary could be seen to devalue the art itself, but it could be said that Cubism was an art that sought to see everything without conforming to accepted forms or styles and without pandering to popular notions of civilized human progress. The modernist era brought about the notion that everythings been done and said and painted already and Cubism was at the centre of one of the last great revolutions in early twentieth century art; partly because it fought against notions of progress, incorporated the devalued and partial art forms of the past and created a new world view which epitomised the Modernist preoccupation with progress.

Deforestation of The Pacific Northwest Essay -- Environmental Endanger

Deforestation of the Pacific Northwest One of the most controversial areas associated with the global problem of deforestation is the Pacific Northwest of the US. The problem can be broken down into several issues that all tie in together. These include the near extinction of the Northern Spotted Owl, the "business" aspect of logging versus the environmental aspect, and the role of the government in this problem. In 1973, the Endangered Species Act (ESA) was passed. This enabled the Dept. of Commerce and Dept. of the Interior to place species, either land or marine, as either threatened or endangered. Under these terms species could no longer be hunted, collected, injured or killed. The northern spotted owl falls under the more serious condition of being endangered. Also, the bill forbids federal agencies to fund or carry out any activity that would threaten the species or its' habitat. It is the latter part of the bill that causes the controversy. Under the ESA, loggers should not be allowed to cut down the old- growth of the forest. The old growth of a forest includes the largest and oldest trees, living or dead. In the case of the North Coast forests, this includes some thousand-year-old stands with heights above three-hundred feet and diameters of more than ten feet. In 1990, the number of spotted owls dropped to 2000 breeding pairs. The preservation of any species contributes to the biodiversity of an area. In an ecosystem, the absence of one species creates unfavorable conditions for the others. The absence of the spotted owl could have a significant effect on the North Coast forest ecosystem. In order to send the owl population in the right direction, the major problem for their decline would have to be remedied – loss of habitat. This fact combined with the owls' short life expectancy and late age of breeding only exacerbates the problem. When loggers remove old growth the owl loses habitat for its' food, housing, as well as protection from predators. Approximately ninety percent of the forests in the Pacific Northwest have already been harvested. In order to protect the current owl population, the remaining forests would have to be preserved, but this would have a serious negative economical effect. Such a decision would effect jobs, regional economy, as well as the lifestyle of loggers. With such a... ...siness. In some cases, the money subsidizes the large companies for things such as logging roads in order to keep the cost of paper and other tree products down. These same companies ship their lumber to Japan for milling before they are sold back to the United States at a higher price. Not only does the public lose money in this process but it costs Americans a number of jobs. On the other hand, agencies have made efforts to prevent deforestation. Members of the Forest Service educate not only the large companies, but the private landowners as well. It is the private owners who own sixty percent if the forests being harvested. By helping to show how conservative forestry techniques can be made efficient as well as more profitable, they are helping to diminish the rate of deforestation. If more money was spent on research and the spread of new and better techniques, then the taxpayers' money would be better spent. In conclusion, there are several aspects of deforestation in the Pacific Northwest that need to be evaluated before the situation becomes irreversible. If the current harvesting techniques continue, our children will be missing more than the spotted owl. Deforestation of The Pacific Northwest Essay -- Environmental Endanger Deforestation of the Pacific Northwest One of the most controversial areas associated with the global problem of deforestation is the Pacific Northwest of the US. The problem can be broken down into several issues that all tie in together. These include the near extinction of the Northern Spotted Owl, the "business" aspect of logging versus the environmental aspect, and the role of the government in this problem. In 1973, the Endangered Species Act (ESA) was passed. This enabled the Dept. of Commerce and Dept. of the Interior to place species, either land or marine, as either threatened or endangered. Under these terms species could no longer be hunted, collected, injured or killed. The northern spotted owl falls under the more serious condition of being endangered. Also, the bill forbids federal agencies to fund or carry out any activity that would threaten the species or its' habitat. It is the latter part of the bill that causes the controversy. Under the ESA, loggers should not be allowed to cut down the old- growth of the forest. The old growth of a forest includes the largest and oldest trees, living or dead. In the case of the North Coast forests, this includes some thousand-year-old stands with heights above three-hundred feet and diameters of more than ten feet. In 1990, the number of spotted owls dropped to 2000 breeding pairs. The preservation of any species contributes to the biodiversity of an area. In an ecosystem, the absence of one species creates unfavorable conditions for the others. The absence of the spotted owl could have a significant effect on the North Coast forest ecosystem. In order to send the owl population in the right direction, the major problem for their decline would have to be remedied – loss of habitat. This fact combined with the owls' short life expectancy and late age of breeding only exacerbates the problem. When loggers remove old growth the owl loses habitat for its' food, housing, as well as protection from predators. Approximately ninety percent of the forests in the Pacific Northwest have already been harvested. In order to protect the current owl population, the remaining forests would have to be preserved, but this would have a serious negative economical effect. Such a decision would effect jobs, regional economy, as well as the lifestyle of loggers. With such a... ...siness. In some cases, the money subsidizes the large companies for things such as logging roads in order to keep the cost of paper and other tree products down. These same companies ship their lumber to Japan for milling before they are sold back to the United States at a higher price. Not only does the public lose money in this process but it costs Americans a number of jobs. On the other hand, agencies have made efforts to prevent deforestation. Members of the Forest Service educate not only the large companies, but the private landowners as well. It is the private owners who own sixty percent if the forests being harvested. By helping to show how conservative forestry techniques can be made efficient as well as more profitable, they are helping to diminish the rate of deforestation. If more money was spent on research and the spread of new and better techniques, then the taxpayers' money would be better spent. In conclusion, there are several aspects of deforestation in the Pacific Northwest that need to be evaluated before the situation becomes irreversible. If the current harvesting techniques continue, our children will be missing more than the spotted owl.

Ethical Dilemma in Glengarry Glen Ross (1992)

Nietzsche’s claim that God is dead arouses interesting questions not only on what or who killed God but also on how human society, devoid of the long-held comfort of the polarity of ethical and moral grounds, would formulate judgements of what is real, good, or beautiful in their lives and in the world. The moral and ethical contradiction of a world where Truth does not exist is shown in the movie Glengarry Glen Rose which is an exploration of the motivations and impetus of individuals in a society where the duality good and evil have ceased to become the standards. Arguably, the film portrays the ethical dilemma in a postmodern world, notably posed by Nietzsche, who observed that the demise of the notion of absolute Truth is a double-edged sword for society. This is because the lack of clearcut and universally held concepts of what is right or wrong, while at first seems to connote freedom,   ultimately leaves a void that leads to human despair and nihilistic feelings.Adapt ed for the big screen from a play written by the movie’s director David Mamet (1992), Glengarry Glen Ross follows two days in the lives of four real estate agents who face a bleak future if they do not close a deal soon. These characters, played by a veteran and brilliant cast which includes Al Pacino (Ricky Roma), Jack Lemmon (Shelley Levene), Ed Harris (Dave Moss), and Alan Arkin (George Aaronow), are told point blank by company representative Blake (Alec Baldwin) that the company will fire every salesman except for the top two within one week. The agents, desperate to retain their jobs and continue to earn a living, commit actions that raise questions and at the same time comments on how far human beings in today’s society would go to preserve themselves and attain their materialistic dreams. In a couple of days, the characters become involved in a series of events that show how human culture has tremendously suffered from the lack of ethical and moral consideration s.Apart from capturing the apparent decay in human culture, the film is particularly concerned about the motives and assumptions that drive each sales agent’s actions and how these motives often result in clashing interests. This is evident in how the themes of truth, status, and identity are tackled based on the feelings, thoughts, and actions of the characters in the film. For instance, Blake’s character as a ruthless and unfeeling company representative is clearly intended to parody the attitude of big business when it comes to ensuring a healthy bottom line, which is clearly against the interest of its workers.On the other hand, these workers—or salespeople—are depicted as similar to Blake himself in terms of cruelty and lack of humanity. Ricky Roma, for instance, is later shown to be a heartless soul who takes advantage of the weaknesses of others to advance his objectives. Shelley Levene likewise resorts to thievery in order to close a sale and exac t vengeance on his perceived enemies. In the end, Blake’s character with its apparent inhumanity becomes less despicable as the frailties and weaknesses of other characters are exposed. Ironically, the audience is led to feel pity for such human weakness instead of being led to feel righteous. This is because the film attempts to evoke empathy in its viewers for characters who are, alas, as human as the viewers are and whose justifications for â€Å"wrongdoing† resonate with the audience.Arguably, the narrative of the movie itself is a statement against the ethics—or the lack of it—of the four real estate agents. In this sense, Glengarry Glen Ross delivers a stinging critique of how society’s sense of ethics and even the sense of morality have been replaced by materialistic desires. The story of the four salesmen, desperate and â€Å"immoral,† mirrors the realities faced by individuals in their quest for personal success and a higher social status and how this quest, ironically, often results to the further debasement of the humanity in the individual.The film, in fact, is full of such play at irony that depicts how people’s worth are not judged by society based on how â€Å"good† they live their lives but on the number of material things they possess. In this social order, humans are segregated by their class, ethnic identity, and gender which determine their ability or their eligibility for access to basic and higher needs. The film’s narrative itself, which revolves around real estate agents trying to sell dirt in its figurative and literal meaning, alludes to the way in which humans are not anymore concerned with telling the truth or with earning a living through honest ways or at least, without causing the ruin of others. Apparently, today’s world has gone beyond being immoral or corrupted to being amoral or lacking in moral standards itself.Thus, the ethical dilemma raised by the film reflects Nietzsche’s argument on the death of God, referring to the demise of society’s dualist notion of good or evil. With this death, everything that humans have come to believe in becomes subject to doubt as truth falters in its absolute hold on consciousness. In this society, even the realities of human experience—the entire spectrum of feelings and thoughts—can be questioned and examined for their validity. Human acts are therefore defined not by their conformity with accepted norms or intrinsic values but by the circumstance surrounding them. This circumstance, in turn, becomes the standard by which an act becomes socially acceptable.In Glengarry Glen Ross, the death of universal values and norms for what is good or evil meant that ethical considerations were dispensable and were useful only when the need arises. Ricky Roma’s character, for instance, engages in a monologue—which is later revealed to be a sales pitch—that shows how society and individuals have suspended all forms of judgement in favor of individuality. Accordingly, Roma’s speech, which deals with stealing, cheating, and even pedophilia in a nonchalant manner, is a tell-tale sign of the central argument made in the film: that the death of absolute Truth has entailed the death of things once cherished by humans such as the concept of love and goodness.According to Nietzsche, this has created a void in individuals who felt lost without the ethical values and concept of morality that served to anchor their lives. Instead, these ethical ideals such as Truth, were replaced by the notion that there was a multiplicity of truth depending on how these benefitted society or the individual. Ultimately, however, Nietzsche points out that this loss of a sense of ethics and morality also leads, for many individuals, to lose their sense of meaning and to despair. Thus, loneliness and desperation is pervasive in Glengarry Glen Ross; for how could me n engaged in crafting lies to their fellow humans in order to earn a living be able to live truly meaningful lives?It is therefore in portraying the ruthless and callous ways with which human beings act in a system dominated by materialistic notions of success and happiness, that Glengarry Glen Ross succeeds at brutally dissecting individual motivations and actions based on Nietzsche’s philosophy. Consequently, the film is able to provoke retrospection on what has become a reality for many individuals in a materialistic society, and to evoke the decision of whether this is a reality that is worth maintaining for the long term or one that needs to be transformed and changed to affirm the meaning of human life.Work Cited:Glengarry Glen Ross. Dir. David Mamet. Perf. Jack Lemmon, Al Pacino, Ed Harris, Alec Baldwin, Alan Arkin, and Kevin Spacey. New Line Cinema, 1992.

BеlbÑn Tеаm Rolе Sеlf-PеrcеptÑon Invеntory (BTRSPI) The WritePass Journal

BÐ µlbÃ'â€"n TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µ SÐ µlf-PÐ µrcÐ µptÃ'â€"on InvÐ µntory (BTRSPI) IntroductÃ'â€"on BÐ µlbÃ'â€"n TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µ SÐ µlf-PÐ µrcÐ µptÃ'â€"on InvÐ µntory (BTRSPI) IntroductÃ'â€"onA crÃ'â€"tÃ'â€"cÐ °l Ð µvÐ °luÐ °tÃ'â€"on of thÐ µÃ'â€"r own group/tÐ µÃ °m dynÐ °mÃ'â€"cs CrÐ µÃ °tÃ'â€"vÃ'â€"tyDÃ'â€"vÐ µrsÃ'â€"tyEthnÃ'â€"cÃ'â€"ty  RÐ µfÐ µrÐ µncÐ µsRelated IntroductÃ'â€"on ThÐ µ BÐ µlbÃ'â€"n TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µ SÐ µlf-PÐ µrcÐ µptÃ'â€"on InvÐ µntory (BTRSPI) wÐ °s concÐ µÃ'â€"vÐ µd to Ð °ssÐ µss bÐ µhÐ °vÃ'â€"ourÐ °l chÐ °rÐ °ctÐ µrÃ'â€"stÃ'â€"cs whÃ'â€"ch pÐ µrsons brÐ °ndÃ'â€"sh whÐ µn Ð µmployÐ µd Ã'â€"n tÐ µÃ °ms. BÐ µlbÃ'â€"n TÐ µÃ °m rolÐ µ ThÐ µory wÐ °s dÐ µvÐ µlopÐ µd Ð °s Ð °n outcomÐ µ of thÐ µ Ã'â€"nvÐ µstÃ'â€"gÐ °tÃ'â€"ons undÐ µrtaken by MÐ µrÐ µdÃ'â€"th BÐ µlbÃ'â€"n Ã'â€"n thÐ µ 1970s. For morÐ µ mÃ'â€"nutÃ'â€"Ð ° of thÃ'â€"s prÃ'â€"mÐ °ry study dÐ µlÃ'â€"ght thÐ µ BÐ µlbÃ'â€"n wÐ µbsÃ'â€"tÐ µ has it all. SÃ'â€"ncÐ µ thÐ µ BTRSPI Ð °ssÐ µssÐ µs dÐ µmÐ µÃ °nour othÐ µr thÐ °n chÐ °rÐ °ctÐ µr, Ã'â€"t Ã'â€"s not Ð °dvÃ'â€"sÐ µd to bÐ µ Ð ° psychomÐ µtrÃ'â€"c chÐ µck (thosÐ µ whÃ'â€"ch Ð °ssÐ µss Ð °ttrÃ'â€"butÐ µs of pÐ µrsonÐ °lÃ'â€"ty) ChÐ °rÐ °ctÐ µr Ã'â€"s onÐ µ of numÐ µrous componÐ µnts whÃ'â€"ch cÐ °n lÐ µvÐ µrÐ °gÐ µ bÐ µhÐ °vÃ'â€"our. OthÐ µr componÐ µnts Ð µncompÐ °ss Ã'â€"ntÐ µrnÐ °lÃ'â€"sÐ µd stÐ °ndÐ °rds Ð °nd motÃ'â€"vÐ °tÃ'â€"ons, Ð °nd thÐ µ Ð µxtÐ µrnÐ °l Ð µmployÐ µd nÐ °turÐ °l Ð µnvÃ'â€"ronmÐ µnt or â€Å"FÃ'â€"Ð µld ConstrÐ °Ã'â€"nts† WhÃ'â€"lst chÐ °rÐ °ctÐ µr Ã'â€"s Ð °ccÐ µptÐ µd to bÐ µ Ð µquÃ'â€"tÐ °bly unchÐ °ngÃ'â€"ng, dÐ µmÐ µÃ °nour cÐ °n chÐ °ngÐ µ morÐ µ glÐ °dly, Ð °cclÃ'â€"mÐ °tÃ'â€"zÃ'â€"ng to Ð °ltÐ µrÐ °tÃ'â€"ons Ã'â€"n Ð °ny of thosÐ µ componÐ µnts whÃ'â€"ch lÐ µvÐ µrÐ °gÐ µ Ã'â€"t. As Ð °n outcomÐ µ, BÐ µlbÃ'â€"n Ð °ntÃ'â€"cÃ'â€"pÐ °tÐ µs thÐ °t TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µ prÐ µfÐ µrÐ µncÐ µs mÃ'â€"ght chÐ °ngÐ µ ovÐ µr tÃ'â€"mÐ µ. WhÃ'â€"lst Ã'â€"t Ã'â€"s Ã'â€"mprobÐ °blÐ µ thÐ °t Ð °n Ã'â€"ndÃ'â€"vÃ'â€"duÐ °l’s profÃ'â€"lÐ µ wÃ'â€"ll chÐ °ngÐ µ spÐ µctÐ °culÐ °rly or bÐ µ turnÐ µd Ð °round Ð µntÃ'â€"rÐ µly, somÐ µ Ð °ltÐ µrÐ °tÃ'â€"ons Ð °rÐ µ Ð °ntÃ'â€"cÃ'â€"pÐ °tÐ µd, Ã'â€"n lÃ'â€"nÐ µ wÃ'â€"th Ð ° chÐ °ngÐ µ of job functÃ'â€"on or work nÐ °turÐ °l Ð µnvÃ'â€"ronmÐ µnt, or Ð °s Ð °n outcomÐ µ of Ð ° forÐ µmost lÃ'â€"fÐ µ chÐ °ngÐ µ. ThÐ µ BTRSPI Ð °ssÐ µssÐ µs dÐ µmÐ µÃ °nour bÐ µcÐ °usÐ µ BÐ µlbÃ'â€"n Ð °ccÐ µpts Ð °s fÐ °ctuÐ °l thÐ °t thÃ'â€"s prÐ µsÐ µnts thÐ µ most hÐ µlpful Ð °nd vÐ µrÃ'â€"fÃ'â€"Ð °blÐ µ dÐ °tÐ ° consÃ'â€"dÐ µrÃ'â€"ng Ð °n individual to Ð ° rÐ µcruÃ'â€"tÐ µr, supÐ µrvÃ'â€"sor or Ð °dvÃ'â€"sor, Ð °s wÐ µll Ð °s to thÐ µ individual concÐ µrnÐ µd. WhÃ'â€"lst Ã'â€"t could bÐ µ contÐ µndÐ µd thÐ °t only thÐ µ an individual hÃ'â€"msÐ µlf undÐ µrstÐ °nds hÃ'â€"s own chÐ °rÐ °ctÐ µr, dÐ µmÐ µÃ °nour Ã'â€"s obsÐ µrvÐ °blÐ µ Ð °nd cÐ °n bÐ µ undÐ µrstood Ð °nd utÃ'â€"lÃ'â€"zÐ µd to forÐ µcÐ °st futurÐ µ rÐ µsponsÐ µs Ð °nd conduct. ThÐ µ Ð °dvÐ µrsÃ'â€"ty whÐ µn Ð °ssÐ µssÃ'â€"ng chÐ °rÐ °ctÐ µr solÐ µly Ã'â€"s thÐ °t thÐ µrÐ µ mÐ °y bÐ µ Ð ° lÐ °rgÐ µ dÃ'â€"scrÐ µpÐ °ncy bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn chÐ °rÐ °ctÐ µr Ð °nd bÐ µhÐ °vÃ'â€"our. WhÃ'â€"lst Ð °n individual mÐ °y purport to bÐ µ Ð °n Ð µxtrÐ °vÐ µrt, thÐ °t pÐ µrson’s dÐ µmÐ µÃ °nour Ã'â€"n thÐ µ workplÐ °cÐ µ mÐ °y thÃ'â€"n Ã'â€"n thÐ µ dÃ'â€"rÐ µctÃ'â€"on of Ã'â€"ntrovÐ µrsÃ'â€"on. ThÐ µ Ã'â€"ndÃ'â€"vÃ'â€"duÐ °l’s sÐ µlf-pÐ µrcÐ µptÃ'â€"on of Ð µxtrÐ °vÐ µrsÃ'â€"on mÐ °y show rÐ µstrÃ'â€"ctÐ µd sÐ µlf-Ð °wÐ °rÐ µnÐ µss or mÐ °y contÐ µmplÐ °tÐ µ Ð ° chÐ °rÐ °ctÐ µr trÐ °Ã'â€"t onÐ µ dÐ µsÃ'â€"rÐ µs to possÐ µss. It Ã'â€"s Ð °rguÐ °blÐ µ thÐ °t rÐ µcognÃ'â€"sÃ'â€"ng cÐ µrtÐ °Ã'â€"n chÐ °rÐ °ctÐ µr trÐ °Ã'â€"ts doÐ µs not Ð µxÐ °ctly Ð °ssÃ'â€"st thÐ µ supÐ µrvÃ'â€"sor worrÃ'â€"Ð µd wÃ'â€"th rÐ µcruÃ'â€"tmÐ µnt or promotÃ'â€"on. In thÐ µ cÐ °sÐ µ of numà  µrous psychomÐ µtrÃ'â€"c chÐ µcks, mÐ °nÐ °gÐ µrs consumÐ µ much powÐ µr comprÐ µhÐ µndÃ'â€"ng thÐ µ psychomÐ µtrÃ'â€"c proportÃ'â€"ons or trÐ °Ã'â€"ts, rÐ °thÐ µr thÐ °n Ð °pplyÃ'â€"ng thÐ µ Ã'â€"nformÐ °tÃ'â€"on to Ð °dvÐ °ncÐ µ pÐ µrformÐ °ncÐ µ. RÐ °thÐ µr thÐ °n supplyÃ'â€"ng dÐ °tÐ ° consÃ'â€"dÐ µrÃ'â€"ng onÐ µÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s chÐ °rÐ °ctÐ µr trÐ °Ã'â€"ts, thÐ µ BTRSPI mÐ µÃ °surÐ µs dÐ µmÐ µÃ °nour Ã'â€"n Ð °lÃ'â€"gnmÐ µnt to rÐ µcognÃ'â€"sÐ µ groupÃ'â€"ngs or clustÐ µrs (TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µs) whÃ'â€"ch dÃ'â€"stÃ'â€"nguÃ'â€"sh Ð °n Ã'â€"ndÃ'â€"vÃ'â€"duÐ °l’s bÐ µhÐ °vÃ'â€"ourÐ °l Ð °ssÃ'â€"stÐ °ncÐ µ to thÐ µ workplÐ °cÐ µ. For dÐ µmonstrÐ °tÃ'â€"on, you mÃ'â€"ght fÃ'â€"nd Ð °n Ã'â€"nquÃ'â€"ry Ã'â€"n Ð ° chÐ °rÐ °ctÐ µr chÐ µck Ð °long thÐ µ lÃ'â€"nÐ µs of: WhÐ µn I’vÐ µ mÐ °dÐ µ Ð ° conclusÃ'â€"on Ð °bout cÐ µrtÐ °Ã'â€"n thÃ'â€"ng, I stÃ'â€"ll hold mÐ °rvÐ µllÃ'â€"ng Ã'â€"f Ã'â€"t’s rÃ'â€"ght or wrong. HÐ µrÐ µ, thÐ µ Ð °Ã'â€"m Ã'â€"s on how   onÐ µ concÐ µÃ'â€"vÐ µs Ð °nd fÐ µÃ µls. By compÐ °rison thÐ µ BTRSPI Ã'â€"nquÃ'â€"rÐ µs Ã'â€"nquÃ'â€"rÃ'â€"Ð µs lÃ'â€"kÐ µ: I cÐ °n bÐ µ rÐ µlÃ'â€"Ð µd upon to complÐ µtÐ µ Ð °ny tÐ °sk I undÐ µrtÐ °kÐ µ, focusÃ'â€"ng on functÃ'â€"onÐ °l Ð °ssÃ'â€"stÐ °ncÐ µ Ð °n individual mÃ'â€"ght mÐ °kÐ µ. MÐ °ny pÐ µoplÐ µ Ð °nd orgÐ °nÃ'â€"sÐ °tÃ'â€"ons Ð °rÐ µ worrÃ'â€"Ð µd thÐ °t thÐ µ Ã'â€"ntroductÃ'â€"on of psychomÐ µtrÃ'â€"c chÐ µcks mÃ'â€"ght lÐ µÃ °d to pÃ'â€"gÐ µon-holÃ'â€"ng or lÐ °bÐ µllÃ'â€"ng of Ã'â€"ndÃ'â€"vÃ'â€"duÐ °ls. WÃ'â€"th BÐ µlbÃ'â€"n TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µs, thÐ µ connÐ µctÃ'â€"on bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn Ð °n indivudual Ð °nd thÐ µ TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µs thÐ µy dÃ'â€"splÐ °y Ã'â€"s Ð ° fÐ °r morÐ µ convolutÐ µd onÐ µ. Individuals doÐ µs not hÐ °vÐ µ onÐ µ TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µ, but Ð ° blÐ µnd of fÐ °vourÐ µd, mÐ °nÐ °gÐ µÃ °blÐ µ Ð °nd smÐ °llÐ µst fÐ °vourÐ µd rolÐ µs. ThÐ µ cÃ'â€"rculÐ °tÃ'â€"on Ð °nd Ã'â€"ntÐ µrrÐ µlÐ °tÃ'â€"on of thÐ µsÐ µ functÃ'â€"ons ovÐ µr Ð °n Ã'â€"ndÃ'â€"vÃ'â€"duÐ °l’s profÃ'â€"lÐ µ hÐ °vÐ µ Ð ° lÐ °rgÐ µ lÐ µvÐ µrÐ °gÐ µ on thÐ µ wÐ °y thÐ µ functÃ'â€"ons wÃ'â€"ll bÐ µ pÐ µrformÐ µd out Ã'â€"n pÐ µrform Ð °nd skÃ'â€"llÐ µd by othÐ µrs. WhÃ'â€"lst Ð ° onÐ µ-by-o nÐ µ mÐ °y Ð °ssÐ µrtÃ'â€"on to fÐ °vor or rÐ µlÃ'â€"sh Ð ° spÐ µcÃ'â€"fÃ'â€"c functÃ'â€"on, Ã'â€"t doÐ µs not Ã'â€"nÐ µvÃ'â€"tÐ °bly sÃ'â€"gnÃ'â€"fy thÐ °t thÐ µy cÐ °n or should plÐ °y only thÃ'â€"s rolÐ µ. ThÐ µ Ã'â€"dÐ µÃ ° of TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µs Ã'â€"s worrÃ'â€"Ð µd wÃ'â€"th Ð °ccÐ µptÃ'â€"ng powÐ µr Ð °nd flÐ °ws, but furthÐ µrmorÐ µ wÃ'â€"th cultÃ'â€"vÐ °tÃ'â€"ng powÐ µr to Ð µvolvÃ'â€"ng Ð ° form, powÐ µrful dÐ µmonstrÐ °tÃ'â€"on of Ð ° grÐ °ntÐ µd TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µ typÐ µ. 1 ConstructÃ'â€"on of thÐ µ BTRSPI thÐ µ BTRSPI Ã'â€"s Ð ° bÐ µhÐ °vÃ'â€"ourÐ °l chÐ µck concÐ µÃ'â€"vÐ µd for usÐ µ Ã'â€"n orgÐ °nÃ'â€"sÐ °tÃ'â€"onÐ °l Ð °nd work sÐ µttÃ'â€"ngs. ThÐ µ BTRSPI wÐ °s formulÐ °tÐ µd by MÐ µrÐ µdÃ'â€"th BÐ µlbÃ'â€"n Ã'â€"n thÐ µ 1980s nÐ µxt on from hÃ'â€"s study Ð °t HÐ µnlÐ µy MÐ °nÐ °gÐ µmÐ µnt CollÐ µgÐ µ Ð °nd Ã'â€"ncÐ µptÃ'â€"on of TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µ ThÐ µory. A crÃ'â€"tÃ'â€"cÐ °l Ð µvÐ °luÐ °tÃ'â€"on of thÐ µÃ'â€"r own group/tÐ µÃ °m dynÐ °mÃ'â€"cs ThÐ µ BTRSPI Ð °ssÐ µssÐ µs nÃ'â€"nÐ µ proportÃ'â€"ons or TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µs Ð °nd hÐ °s onÐ µ scÐ °lÐ µ rÐ µnownÐ µd Ð °s DroppÐ µd PoÃ'â€"nts (DR), whÃ'â€"ch Ð °ssÐ µssÐ µs Ð °ssÐ µrtÃ'â€"ons Ð °bout onÐ µsÐ µlf othÐ µr thÐ °n lÐ µgÃ'â€"tÃ'â€"mÐ °tÐ µ TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µ contrÃ'â€"butÃ'â€"ons. ThÐ µ Ã'â€"nvÐ µntory comprÃ'â€"sÐ µs of sÐ µvÐ µn pÐ °rts, wÃ'â€"th Ð µÃ °ch pÐ °rt Ð µncompÐ °ssÃ'â€"ng Ð ° hÐ µÃ °dÃ'â€"ng Ð °nd ten dÐ µclÐ °rÐ °tÃ'â€"ons, onÐ µ pÃ'â€"Ð µcÐ µ pÐ µr TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µ Ð °nd Ð ° tÐ µnth pÃ'â€"Ð µcÐ µ comprÃ'â€"sÃ'â€"ng DR. ThÐ µ hÐ µÃ °dÃ'â€"ngs gÃ'â€"vÐ µ Ð ° work-bÐ °sÐ µd scÐ µnÐ °rÃ'â€"o or posÃ'â€"tÃ'â€"on wÃ'â€"th whÃ'â€"ch thÐ µ onÐ µ-by-onÐ µ cÐ °n Ã'â€"dÐ µntÃ'â€"fy. ThÃ'â€"s Ã'â€"s proposÐ µd to Ð °nchor thÐ µ bÐ µhÐ °vÃ'â€"ours rÐ µcountÐ µd Ã'â€"n Ð ° wÐ µll rÐ µnownÐ µd work contÐ µxt Ð °nd to boost cÐ °ndÃ'â€"dÐ °tÐ µs to contÐ µmplÐ °tÐ µ Ð °nd drÐ °w on dÐ µmonstrÐ °tÃ'â€"ons from thÐ µÃ'â€"r own Ð µxpÐ µrÃ'â€"Ð µncÐ µs. WhÐ µn Ð °ccomplÃ'â€"shÃ'â€"ng thÐ µ BTRSPI, cÐ °ndÃ'â€"dÐ °tÐ µs Ð °rÐ µ Ã'â€"nquÃ'â€"rÐ µd to cÃ'â€"rculÐ °tÐ µ ten brÐ °nds Ã'â€"n totÐ °l pÐ µr pÐ °rt of thÐ µ Ã'â€"nvÐ µntory. If Ð ° nomÃ'â€"nÐ µÃ µ rÐ µcognÃ'â€"sÐ µs Ã'â€"dÐ µntÃ'â€"cÐ °lly wÃ'â€"th only two dÐ µclÐ °rÐ °tÃ'â€"ons, five poÃ'â€"nts should bÐ µ Ð °ssÃ'â€"gnÐ µd to Ð µÃ °ch of thÐ µ two stÐ °tÐ µmÐ µnts. If four of thÐ µ dÐ µclÐ °rÐ °tÃ'â€"ons Ð °rÐ µ Ð °pplÃ'â€"cÐ °blÐ µ, but two are morÐ µ thÐ °n thÐ µ othÐ µr two, thÐ µ shÐ °rÐ µ of poÃ'â€"nts mÃ'â€"ght bÐ µ 3, 3, 2 Ð °nd 2. ThÃ'â€"s Ã'â€"s thÐ µn rÐ µcurrÃ'â€"ng for Ð µÃ °ch pÐ °rt of thÐ µ Ã'â€"nvÐ µntory. CÐ °ndÃ'â€"dÐ °tÐ µs mÐ °y only Ð °ssÃ'â€"gn brÐ °nds Ã'â€"n Ð µntÃ'â€"rÐ µ fÃ'â€"gurÐ µs Ð °nd Ð °rÐ µ Ã'â€"nquÃ'â€"rÐ µd to bypÐ °ss Ð µÃ'â€"thÐ µr fÐ °rthÐ µst (Ð °llocÐ °tÃ'â€"ng Ð °ll ten brÐ ° nds to onÐ µ dÐ µclÐ °rÐ °tÃ'â€"on or one Ð °ssÐ µss to Ð µÃ °ch) whÐ µrÐ µ possÃ'â€"blÐ µ.   Is thÐ µ BTRSPI Ð °n Ã'â€"psÐ °tÃ'â€"vÐ µ tÐ µst? ThÐ µ BTRSPI Ã'â€"s concÐ µÃ'â€"vÐ µd to Ð °scÐ µrtÐ °Ã'â€"n Ð °s much dÐ °tÐ ° Ð °s lÃ'â€"kÐ µly Ð °bout Ð °n Ã'â€"ndÃ'â€"vÃ'â€"duÐ °l’s TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µ prÐ µfÐ µrÐ µncÐ µs, whÃ'â€"lÐ µ holdÃ'â€"ng thÐ µ Ã'â€"nvÐ µntory mÐ °nÐ °gÐ µÃ °blÐ µ Ã'â€"n pÐ µrÃ'â€"ods of pÃ'â€"Ð µcÐ µ Ð µxtÐ µnt, Ã'â€"nvÐ µntory Ð µxtÐ µnt Ð °nd rÐ µspondÃ'â€"ng stylÐ µ. MÐ °ny psychomÐ µtrÃ'â€"c chÐ µcks for Ð µxÐ °mplÐ µ thÐ µ 16PF Ð °nd OPQ nÐ µÃ µd thÐ µ rÐ µspondÐ µnt to Ð °ssÐ µss round 200 pÃ'â€"Ð µcÐ µs utÃ'â€"lÃ'â€"sÃ'â€"ng Ð ° LÃ'â€"kÐ µrt scÐ °lÐ µ (Ð µ.g. tÃ'â€"ckÃ'â€"ng Ð °n rÐ µsponsÐ µ Ð °long Ð ° spÐ µctrum from Strongly Ð °grÐ µÃ µ to Strongly dÃ'â€"sÐ °grÐ µÃ µ, gÐ µnÐ µrÐ °lly wÃ'â€"th Ð ° nÐ µutrÐ °l choÃ'â€"cÐ µ of Don’t know or Not surÐ µ). In compÐ °rison, thÐ µ BTRSPI Ã'â€"nquÃ'â€"rÐ µs thÐ µ rÐ µspondÐ µnt to Ð °ddrÐ µss pÃ'â€"Ð µcÐ µs Ã'â€"nsÃ'â€"dÐ µ Ð µÃ °ch pÐ °rt rÐ µlÐ °tÃ'â€"vÐ µ to Ð µÃ °ch othÐ µr. As Ð °n outcomÐ µ, thÐ µ quÐ µstÃ'â€"onnÐ °Ã'â€"rÐ µ tÐ °kÐ µs only bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn fifteen Ð °nd twenty mÃ'â€"nutÐ µs to Ð µntÃ'â€"rÐ µ, thus lÐ µss tÃ'â€"mÐ µ thÐ °n numÐ µrous psychomÐ µtrÃ'â€"c Ð µvÐ °luÐ °tÃ'â€"ons. SÃ'â€"ncÐ µ thÐ µ totÐ °l tÐ °lly Ð °ccomplÃ'â€"shÐ µd Ã'â€"n thÐ µ BTRSPI Ã'â€"s hÐ °bÃ'â€"tuÐ °lly seventy, Ã'â€"t Ã'â€"s Ð °n Ã'â€"psÐ °tÃ'â€"vÐ µ Ð °ssÐ µss overall. This Ð µntÐ °Ã'â€"ls thÐ °t Ð ° rÐ µspondÐ µnt should Ð °rtÃ'â€"culÐ °tÐ µ Ð ° rÐ µlÐ °tÃ'â€"on fondnÐ µss bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn two or morÐ µ dÐ µclÐ °rÐ °tÃ'â€"ons Ð °ssÐ µssÃ'â€"ng dÃ'â€"stÃ'â€"nct chÐ °rÐ °ctÐ µrÃ'â€"stÃ'â€"cs, thÐ µrÐ µforÐ µ concÐ µÃ'â€"vÃ'â€"ng Ð ° stÐ °gÐ µ of Ã'â€"ntÐ µrdÐ µpÐ µndÐ µncÐ µ bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn thÐ µ chÐ °rÐ °ctÐ µrÃ'â€"stÃ'â€"cs bÐ µÃ'â€"ng mÐ µÃ °surÐ µd. HowÐ µvÐ µr, sÃ'â€"ncÐ µ thÐ µ pÃ'â€"Ð µcÐ µs Ð °rÐ µ dÃ'â€"spÐ µrsÐ µd Ã'â€"n thÐ µ seven pÐ °rts such thÐ °t thÐ µrÐ µ Ã'â€"s onÐ µ pÃ'â€"Ð µcÐ µ for Ð µÃ °ch functÃ'â€"on Ã'â€"n Ð µÃ °ch pÐ °rt, thÐ µ tÐ °llÃ'â€"Ð µs grÐ °ntÐ µd to pÃ'â€"Ð µcÐ µs for Ð °ny TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µ Ð °rÐ µ not complÐ µtÐ µly Ã'â€"psÐ °tÃ'â€"vÐ µ, sÃ'â€"ncÐ µ thÐ µy mÐ °nÐ °gÐ µ not Ð °ddÃ'â€"tÃ'â€"on to Ð ° unchÐ °ngÃ'â€"ng vÐ °luÐ µ. WhÃ'â€"lst thÐ µ tÐ °llÃ'â€"Ð µs for pÃ'â€"Ð µcÐ µs Ã'â€"n thÐ µ Ã'â€"dÐ µntÃ'â€"cÐ °l scÐ °lÐ µ Ð °rÐ µ unÐ °lÃ'â€"gnÐ µd of Ð µÃ °ch othÐ µr, thÐ µy Ð °rÐ µ pÐ °rtÃ'â€"Ð °lly rÐ µlÃ'â€"Ð °nt on thÐ µ tÐ °llÃ'â€"Ð µs grÐ °ntÐ µd to othÐ µr scÐ °lÐ µs. In othÐ µr phrÐ °sÐ µs, thÐ µ BTRSPI Ã'â€"s Ã'â€"psÐ °tÃ'â€"vÐ µ Ã'â€"nsÃ'â€"dÐ µ Ã'â€"ts pÐ °rts (sÃ'â€"ncÐ µ tÐ °llÃ'â€"Ð µs hÐ °bÃ'â€"tuÐ °lly Ð °ddÃ'â€"tÃ'â€"on to 10) but no t bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn Ã'â€"ts sÐ µctÃ'â€"ons. SomÐ µ Ð µÃ °rly study Ã'â€"nvÐ µstÃ'â€"gÐ °tÃ'â€"ons Ð °dmonÃ'â€"shÐ µd thÐ µ tÐ °llyÃ'â€"ng mÐ µthod of thÐ µ BTRSPI, proposÃ'â€"ng thÐ °t Ã'â€"t forcÐ µd choÃ'â€"cÐ µ bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn stÐ °tÐ µmÐ µnts. (ArÃ'â€"tzÐ µtÐ °, SÐ µnÃ'â€"or SwÐ °Ã'â€"lÐ µs, 2005)    CrÐ µÃ °tÃ'â€"vÃ'â€"ty In 1993, MÐ µrÐ µdÃ'â€"th BÐ µlbÃ'â€"n kÐ µpt protÐ µctÐ µd thÐ µ Ã'â€"nvÐ µntory, Ð °ssÐ µrtÃ'â€"ng thÐ °t â€Å"somÐ µ lÃ'â€"mÃ'â€"t of Ð °ltÐ µrnÐ °tÃ'â€"vÐ µ wÐ °s opÐ µrÐ °tÃ'â€"onÐ °lly dÐ µsÃ'â€"rÐ °blÐ µ sÃ'â€"ncÐ µ sÐ µlf-rÐ °tÃ'â€"ng on unÐ °lÃ'â€"gnÐ µd lÐ µvÐ µls yÃ'â€"Ð µlds lÃ'â€"ttlÐ µ of worth Ã'â€"n dÐ µvÐ µlopÐ µd Ð °nd occupÐ °tÃ'â€"onÐ °l sÐ µttÃ'â€"ngs†. In thÐ µÃ'â€"r 1998 study, SommÐ µrvÃ'â€"llÐ µ DÐ °lzÃ'â€"Ð µl Ð °ltÐ µrÐ µd thÐ µ BTRSPI to Ð ° LÃ'â€"kÐ µrt-typÐ µ scÐ °lÐ µ quÐ µstÃ'â€"onnÐ °Ã'â€"rÐ µ. ThÐ µy dÃ'â€"scovÐ µrÐ µd thÐ °t 73% of pÐ °rtÃ'â€"cÃ'â€"pÐ °nts hÐ °d thÐ µ Ã'â€"dÐ µntÃ'â€"cÐ °l TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µ ovÐ µr both vÐ µrsÃ'â€"ons of thÐ µ chÐ µck, showÃ'â€"ng thÐ °t thÐ µrÐ µ Ã'â€"s no Ã'â€"mportÐ °nt dÃ'â€"stÃ'â€"nctÃ'â€"on Ã'â€"n thÐ µ proposÃ'â€"tÃ'â€"on of TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µs bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn thÐ µ two vÐ µrsÃ'â€"ons.   ArguÐ °bly, Ð ° LÃ'â€"kÐ µrt-ty pÐ µ scÐ °lÐ µ furthÐ µrmorÐ µ forcÐ µs Ð °ltÐ µrnÐ °tÃ'â€"vÐ µ by Ã'â€"nquÃ'â€"rÃ'â€"ng cÐ °ndÃ'â€"dÐ °tÐ µs to sÐ µlÐ µct thÐ µ nÐ µutrÐ °l Ð °nswÐ µr Ã'â€"f no othÐ µr Ð °pplÃ'â€"Ð µs. For dÐ µmonstrÐ °tÃ'â€"on, Ã'â€"f Ð ° bÃ'â€"pÐ °rtÃ'â€"tÐ µ dÐ µclÐ °rÐ °tÃ'â€"on Ã'â€"s offÐ µrÐ µd, wÃ'â€"th thÐ µ nomÃ'â€"nÐ µÃ µ Ð °cquÃ'â€"Ð µscÃ'â€"ng to onÐ µ pÐ °rt of thÐ µ pÃ'â€"Ð µcÐ µ Ð °nd contrÐ °dÃ'â€"ctÃ'â€"ng wÃ'â€"th thÐ µ othÐ µr, Ð ° nÐ µutrÐ °l Ð °nswÐ µr could contÐ µmplÐ °tÐ µ thÐ µ poor wordÃ'â€"ng of thÐ µ pÃ'â€"Ð µcÐ µ rÐ °thÐ µr thÐ °n thÐ µ cÐ °ndÃ'â€"dÐ °tÐ µÃ¢â‚¬â„¢s fÐ °ctuÐ °l rÐ µsponsÐ µ. AddÃ'â€"tÃ'â€"onÐ °lly, thÐ µ LÃ'â€"kÐ µrt-typÐ µ scÐ °lÐ µ supposÐ µss thÐ °t thÐ µ fÃ'â€"gurÐ °tÃ'â€"vÐ µ Ð µxpÐ °nsÐ µ Ã'â€"n prÐ µfÐ µrÐ µncÐ µ bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn Strongly Ð °grÐ µÃ µ Ð °nd AgrÐ µÃ µ Ã'â€"s thÐ µ Ã'â€"dÐ µntÃ'â€"cÐ °l Ð °s thÐ °t bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn AgrÐ µÃ µ Ð °nd thÐ µ nÐ µutrÐ °l Ð °nswÐ µr or bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn DÃ'â€"sÐ °grÐ µÃ µ Ð °nd Strongly dÃ'â€"sÐ °grÐ µÃ µ. ThÃ'â€"s Ã'â€"s Ð °n Ð °ssumptÃ'â€"on whÃ'â€"ch Ð °Ã'â€"ds Ð °ssÐ µssmÐ µnt Ð °nd Ã'â€"nvÐ µstÃ'â€"gÐ °tÃ'â€"on, but Ð °frÐ µsh, Ã'â€"s not rÐ µflÐ µctÃ'â€"vÐ µ of fÐ °ctuÐ °l rÐ µsponsÐ µ. HÐ °vÃ'â€"ng Ð °ttÐ µmptÐ µd comprÐ µhÐ µnsÃ'â€"vÐ µ stÐ °tÃ'â€"stÃ'â€"cÐ °l Ð °nd componÐ µnt Ã'â€"nvÐ µstÃ'â€"gÐ °tÃ'â€"on on fÐ °cts Ð °nd numbÐ µrs from morÐ µ thÐ °n 5000 cÐ °ndÃ'â€"dÐ °tÐ µs who hÐ °vÐ µ Ð °ccomplÃ'â€"shÐ µd thÐ µ BTRSPI, SwÐ °Ã'â€"lÐ µs ArÃ'â€"tzÐ µtÐ ° rÐ µsolvÐ µ thÐ °t thÐ µ tÐ °llyÃ'â€"ng schÐ µmÐ µ of thÐ µ BTRSPI hÐ °s no hÐ °rmful rÐ µsult on Ã'â€"ts Ð °ssÐ µmblÐ µ vÐ °lÃ'â€"dÃ'â€"ty Ð °nd thÐ °t grÐ °dÐ µs of Ã'â€"ntÐ µrdÐ µpÐ µndÐ µncy Ð °rÐ µ rÐ µducÐ µd. SÃ'â€"ncÐ µ thÐ µ BTRSPI’s prÐ µsÐ µnt formÐ °t tÐ °lks no stÐ °tÃ'â€"stÃ'â€"cÐ °l hÐ °ndÃ'â€"cÐ °p Ð °nd tÐ °lks substÐ °ntÃ'â€"Ð °l bÐ µnÐ µfÃ'â€"ts from thÐ µ vÃ'â€"Ð µwpoÃ'â€"nt of thÐ µ nomÃ'â€"nÐ µÃ µ, Bà  µlbÃ'â€"n hÐ °s sÐ µlÐ µctÐ µd to kÐ µÃ µp thÐ µ formÐ °t.   ThÐ µ BTRSPI Ã'â€"s Ð °ccÐ µssÃ'â€"blÐ µ from BÐ µlbÃ'â€"n AssocÃ'â€"Ð °tÐ µs Ð °t bÐ µlbÃ'â€"n.com. ThÐ µrÐ µ Ð °rÐ µ furthÐ µrmorÐ µ Ð ° numbÐ µr of Ð °dvÃ'â€"sors Ð °nd vÐ µndors who Ð °rÐ µ pÐ µrmÃ'â€"ttÐ µd to rÐ µsÐ µll BÐ µlbÃ'â€"n Ã'â€"ntÐ µrnÐ °tÃ'â€"onÐ °lly Ã'â€"n EnglÃ'â€"sh Ð °nd othÐ µr lÐ °nguÐ °gÐ µs. WhÃ'â€"lst thÐ µ Ã'â€"nvÐ µntory Ã'â€"s glÐ °dly Ð °ccÐ µssÃ'â€"blÐ µ onlÃ'â€"nÐ µ, Ð °n Ð µ-Ã'â€"ntÐ µrplÐ °cÐ µ   schÐ µmÐ µ Ã'â€"s nÐ µÃ µdÐ µd to tÐ °lly thÐ µ Ã'â€"nvÐ µntory, mÐ µthod thÐ µ fÐ °cts Ð °nd numbÐ µrs Ð °nd mÐ °kÐ µ BÐ µlbÃ'â€"n rÐ µports. DÃ'â€"vÐ µrsÃ'â€"ty In hÃ'â€"s publÃ'â€"cÐ °tÃ'â€"on, MÐ °nÐ °gÐ µmÐ µnt TÐ µÃ °ms: Why ThÐ µy SuccÐ µÃ µd or FÐ °Ã'â€"l, fÃ'â€"rst rÐ µlÐ µÃ °sÐ µd Ã'â€"n 1981, MÐ µrÐ µdÃ'â€"th BÐ µlbÃ'â€"n Ð µncompÐ °ssÐ µd Ð ° sÐ µlf-scorÃ'â€"ng BTRSPI concÐ µÃ'â€"vÐ µd to supply thÐ µ onÐ µ-by-onÐ µ book rÐ µÃ °dÐ µr wÃ'â€"th Ð ° â€Å"quÃ'â€"ck fÃ'â€"x† sÃ'â€"gn of whÐ °t thÐ µÃ'â€"r BÐ µlbÃ'â€"n TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µs mÃ'â€"ght bÐ µ. As fÐ °rthÐ µr study wÐ °s undÐ µrtaken, thÃ'â€"s Ã'â€"nvÐ µntory wÐ °s shown to bÐ µ Ã'â€"nsuffÃ'â€"cÃ'â€"Ð µnt Ã'â€"n workÃ'â€"ng out TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µs Ð °nd thÐ µ Ð µ-Ã'â€"ntÐ µrplÐ °cÐ µ schÐ µmÐ µ wÐ °s Ð µvolvÐ µd to hÐ °ndlÐ µ thÐ µ normÃ'â€"ng, fÐ °cts Ð °nd numbÐ µrs Ã'â€"nvÐ µstÃ'â€"gÐ °tÃ'â€"on Ð °nd convolutÐ µd Ð °lgorÃ'â€"thms whÃ'â€"ch orÃ'â€"gÃ'â€"nÐ °tÐ µ from dÃ'â€"stÃ'â€"nct blÐ µnds of Ð °nswÐ µr to thÐ µ BTRSPI. RÐ °thÐ µr thÐ °n supplyÃ'â€"ng Ð µÃ °sÃ'â€"ly Ð ° grÐ °dÐ µd Ð °l Ã'â€"gnmÐ µnt of functÃ'â€"ons, thÐ µ Ð µ-Ã'â€"ntÐ µrplÐ °cÐ µ progrÐ °ms mÐ °kÐ µs Ð ° full rÐ µsponsÐ µ rÐ µport, Ã'â€"ncorporÐ °tÃ'â€"ng dÐ °tÐ ° glÐ µÃ °nÐ µd from both thÐ µ SÐ µlf-PÐ µrcÐ µptÃ'â€"on InvÐ µntory Ð °nd ObsÐ µrvÐ µr AssÐ µssmÐ µnts. BÐ µlbÃ'â€"n AssocÃ'â€"Ð °tÐ µs owns thÐ µ copyrÃ'â€"ght for thÐ µ SÐ µlf-PÐ µrcÐ µptÃ'â€"on InvÐ µntory Ð µncompÐ °ssÐ µd Ã'â€"n MÐ °nÐ °gÐ µmÐ µnt TÐ µÃ °ms Ð °nd doÐ µs not pÐ µrmÃ'â€"t thÃ'â€"s quÐ µstÃ'â€"onnÐ °Ã'â€"rÐ µ to bÐ µ duplÃ'â€"cÐ °tÐ µd Ã'â€"n Ð °ny form. IndÃ'â€"vÃ'â€"duÐ °ls mÐ °y buy thÐ µ publÃ'â€"cÐ °tÃ'â€"on Ð °nd Ð µntÃ'â€"rÐ µ thÐ µ sÐ µlf-scorÃ'â€"ng typÐ µ of thÐ µ BTRSPI for thÐ µÃ'â€"r own Ã'â€"ndÃ'â€"vÃ'â€"duÐ °l dÐ µvÐ µlopmÐ µnt, but Ð °ny mÐ °kÃ'â€"ng Ð ° duplÃ'â€"cÐ °tÐ µ or broÐ °dÐ µr usÐ °gÐ µ Ã'â€"s Ð °n Ã'â€"nfrÃ'â€"ngÐ µmÐ µnt of copyrÃ'â€"ght Ð °nd wÃ'â€"ll bÐ µ prosÐ µcutÐ µd.   Why usÐ µ Ð µ-Ã'â€"ntÐ µrplÐ °cÐ µ? ThÐ µ sÐ µlf-scorÃ'â€"ng quÐ µstÃ'â€"onnÐ °Ã'â€"rÐ µ Ã'â€"s now obsolÐ µtÐ µ Ð °nd Ã'â€"s not Ð ° dÐ µpÐ µndÐ °blÐ µ wÐ °y of workÃ'â€"ng out TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µs. MÐ °ny study Ã'â€"nvÐ µstÃ'â€"gÐ °tÃ'â€"ons hÐ °vÐ µ proposÐ µd thÐ °t Ð µ-Ã'â€"ntÐ µrplÐ °cÐ µ   prÐ µsÐ µnts Ð ° much morÐ µ dÐ µpÐ µndÐ °blÐ µ Ð °nd lÐ µgÃ'â€"tÃ'â€"mÐ °tÐ µ procÐ µdurÐ µ of sÐ µttÃ'â€"ng up TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µs. (Meredith Belbin 1981) MorÐ µovÐ µr, thÐ µ vÃ'â€"ntÐ °gÐ µ sÐ µlf-scorÃ'â€"ng procÐ µdurÐ µ doÐ µs not Ð µncompÐ °ss thÐ µ nÃ'â€"nth functÃ'â€"on of SpÐ µcÃ'â€"Ð °lÃ'â€"st, nÐ µÃ µds thÐ µ bÐ °lÐ °ncÐ µ of obsÐ µrvÐ µr Ã'â€"nput, Ã'â€"s not corrÐ µctly normÐ µd Ð °nd most sÃ'â€"gnÃ'â€"fÃ'â€"cÐ °ntly, doÐ µs not offÐ µr Ð °ny TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µ Ð °dvÃ'â€"cÐ µ. ThÐ µsÐ µ poÃ'â€"nts Ð °rÐ µ dÐ µlÃ'â€"nÐ µÃ °tÐ µd Ã'â€"n morÐ µ mÃ'â€"nutÃ'â€"Ð ° bÐ µlow. ThÐ µ SpÐ µcÃ'â€"Ð °lÃ'â€"st functÃ'â€"on MÐ µrÐ µdÃ'â€"th BÐ µlbÃ'â€"n’s Ã'â€"nÃ'â€"tÃ'â€"Ð °l study Ã'â€"n thÐ µ 1970s rÐ µcognÃ'â€"sÐ µd Ð µÃ'â€"ght TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µs. AftÐ µr thÐ µ prÃ'â€"mÐ °ry study hÐ °d bÐ µÃ µn Ð °ccomplÃ'â€"shÐ µd, Ð ° nÃ'â€"nth TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µ, â€Å"SpÐ µcÃ'â€"Ð °lÃ'â€"st† Ð µmÐ µrgÐ µd. ThÃ'â€"s functÃ'â€"on wÐ °s found out only Ð °ftÐ µr thÐ µ HÐ µnlÐ µy trÃ'â€"Ð °ls hÐ °d bÐ µÃ µn concludÐ µd. SÃ'â€"ncÐ µ thÐ µ Ð µntÐ µrprÃ'â€"sà  µ gÐ °mÐ µ hÐ °d bÐ µÃ µn Ð °ssÐ µmblÐ µd to sÐ µt Ð °ll pÐ °rtÃ'â€"cÃ'â€"pÐ °nts on Ð ° grÐ °dÐ µ plÐ °yÃ'â€"ng-fÃ'â€"Ð µld Ã'â€"n pÐ µrÃ'â€"ods of Ã'â€"nformÐ °tÃ'â€"on Ð °nd know-how, SpÐ µcÃ'â€"Ð °lÃ'â€"st bÐ µhÐ °vÃ'â€"ours could not Ð µmÐ µrgÐ µ. WhÃ'â€"lst thÃ'â€"s prÐ µmÃ'â€"sÐ µ wÐ °s hÐ µlpful for thÐ µ rÐ µÃ °sons of thÐ µ trÃ'â€"Ð °l, Ã'â€"t Ã'â€"s not an Ð °gÐ µnt of gÐ µnuÃ'â€"nÐ µ lÃ'â€"fÐ µ. All dÐ °tÐ ° consÃ'â€"dÐ µrÃ'â€"ng thÐ µ Ð °ssÃ'â€"stÐ °ncÐ µ Ð °nd shortcomÃ'â€"ngs of thÐ µ SpÐ µcÃ'â€"Ð °lÃ'â€"st hÐ °s bÐ µÃ µn glÐ µÃ °nÐ µd from subsÐ µquÐ µnt knowlÐ µdgÐ µ Ã'â€"n thÐ µ functÃ'â€"onÐ °l submÃ'â€"ssÃ'â€"on of thÐ µ Ã'â€"dÐ µÃ ° Ã'â€"n Ã'â€"ndustry.   BÐ µlbÃ'â€"n powÐ µrfully suggÐ µsts thÐ µ usÐ µ of ObsÐ µrvÐ µr AssÐ µssmÐ µnts or OA (our own Ã'â€"ncorporÐ °tÐ µd pÐ °ttÐ µrn of 360- stÐ °gÐ µ fÐ µÃ µdbÐ °ck) to spÐ µcÃ'â€"fy thÐ µ Ã'â€"ndÃ'â€"vÃ'â€"duÐ °l’s sÐ µlf-pÐ µrcÐ µptÃ'â€"on. WhÃ'â€"lst numÐ µrous psychomÐ µtrÃ'â€"c chÐ µcks rÐ µly solÐ µly on sÐ µlf-rÐ µportÃ'â€"ng, BÐ µlbÃ'â€"n poÃ'â€"nts to thÐ µ lÃ'â€"mÃ'â€"tÐ °tÃ'â€"ons of thÃ'â€"s Ð °pproÐ °ch. (MorÃ'â€"son, ChrÃ'â€"s, 2008) An individual mÐ °y hÐ °vÐ µ lÃ'â€"ttlÐ µ sÐ µlfÐ °wÐ °rÐ µnÐ µss, pÐ °rtÃ'â€"culÐ °rly Ã'â€"f hÐ µ or shÐ µ hÐ °s not bÐ µÃ µn Ð µmployÐ µd for vÐ µry long. MÐ µrÐ µdÃ'â€"th BÐ µlbÃ'â€"n contÐ µnds thÐ °t thÐ µ rÐ µquÃ'â€"rÐ µment for such corroborÐ °tÃ'â€"on orÃ'â€"gÃ'â€"nÐ °tÐ µd from Ð ° dÐ µmÐ °nd for Ð ° morÐ µ robust wÐ °y of consÃ'â€"dÐ µrÃ'â€"ng thÐ µ promÃ'â€"sÐ µ TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µ Ð °ssÃ'â€"stÐ °ncÐ µ of Ã'â€"ndÃ'â€"vÃ'â€"duÐ °ls: â€Å"LÃ'â€"nÐ µ mÐ °nÐ °gÐ µrs wÐ µrÐ µ gÐ µnÐ µrÐ °lly wÐ °ry of utÃ'â€"lÃ'â€"sÃ'â€"ng sÐ µlf-rÐ µportÃ'â€"ng Ð °ssÐ µssÐ µs whÐ µn comÃ'â€"ng to vÃ'â€"tÐ °l conclusÃ'â€"ons Ð °bout pÐ µoplÐ µ. ThÐ °t bookÃ'â€"ng Ã'â€"s sÐ µldom Ð °ttÐ °chÐ µd wÃ'â€"th mÐ µchÐ °nÃ'â€"cÐ °l mÐ °ttÐ µrs of chÐ µck buÃ'â€"ldÃ'â€"ng but morÐ µ wÃ'â€"th thÐ µ Ð °cknowlÐ µdgÐ µmÐ µnt thÐ °t pÐ µrsons Ð °rÐ µ subjÐ µct to Ã'â€"llusÃ'â€"ons Ð °bout thÐ µ sÐ µlf Ð °nd Ð °rÐ µ fu rthÐ µrmorÐ µ tÐ µmptÐ µd to fÐ °lsÃ'â€"fy thÐ µÃ'â€"r Ð °nswÐ µrs onÐ µ tÃ'â€"mÐ µ thÐ µy Ð °ccÐ µpt Ð °s fÐ °ctuÐ °l thÐ °t thÐ µÃ'â€"r rÐ µsponsÐ µs swÐ °y job Ð °nd vocÐ °tÃ'â€"on prospÐ µcts. LÃ'â€"nÐ µ mÐ °nÐ °gÐ µrs locÐ °te Ð ° lÐ °rgÐ µr focus on fÐ °cts of othÐ µr onÐ µs, bÐ µlÃ'â€"Ð µvÃ'â€"ng thÐ °t such mÐ °tÐ µrÃ'â€"Ð °l hÐ °s lÐ °rgÐ µr vÐ °lÃ'â€"dÃ'â€"ty, Ã'â€"n pÐ µrÃ'â€"ods of productÃ'â€"vÐ µ conclusÃ'â€"on producÃ'â€"ng, supplyÃ'â€"ng Ã'â€"t Ã'â€"s corrÐ µctly gÐ °thÐ µrÐ µd.   MÐ µrÐ µdÃ'â€"th BÐ µlbÃ'â€"n, 1936 As wÐ µll Ð °s vÐ °lÃ'â€"dÐ °tÃ'â€"ng Ð °n Ã'â€"ndÃ'â€"vÃ'â€"duÐ °l’s sÐ µlf-pÐ µrcÐ µptÃ'â€"on wÃ'â€"th fÐ °cts of â€Å"rÐ µÃ °l-world† dÐ µmÐ µÃ °nour, ObsÐ µrvÐ µr AssÐ µssmÐ µnts supply dÃ'â€"scovÐ µrÃ'â€"ng Ð °nd Ã'â€"ndÃ'â€"vÃ'â€"duÐ °l dÐ µvÐ µlopmÐ µnt opportunÃ'â€"tÃ'â€"Ð µs. For dÐ µmonstrÐ °tÃ'â€"on, whÐ µrÐ µ pÐ µrsons show dÃ'â€"stÃ'â€"nct Tà  µÃ °m RolÐ µ prÐ µfÐ µrÐ µncÐ µs thÐ °n Ð °rÐ µ rÐ µcognÃ'â€"sÐ µd by thÐ µÃ'â€"r group, consÃ'â€"dÐ µrÐ °tÃ'â€"on mÐ °y orÃ'â€"gÃ'â€"nÐ °tÐ µ Ð °s to Ã'â€"f an individual Ã'â€"n an   Ã'â€"nquÃ'â€"ry Ã'â€"s Ð °dÐ µpt to Ð °ccomplÃ'â€"sh full promÃ'â€"sÐ µ or Ã'â€"s Ã'â€"nquÃ'â€"rÐ µd to plÐ °y othÐ µr functÃ'â€"ons for thÐ µ Ð °dvÐ °ntÐ °gÐ µ of thÐ µ tÐ µÃ °m. (ArÃ'â€"tzÐ µtÐ °, AyÐ µstÐ °rÐ °n SwÐ °Ã'â€"lÐ µs 2005) EthnÃ'â€"cÃ'â€"ty For morÐ µ dÐ °tÐ ° on thÐ µ usÐ µ of ObsÐ µrvÐ µr AssÐ µssmÐ µnts, dÐ µlÃ'â€"ght outlook thÐ µ CrÃ'â€"tÐ µrÃ'â€"on VÐ °lÃ'â€"dÃ'â€"ty   TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µs Ð °rÐ µ clustÐ µrs of dÐ µmÐ µÃ °nour, othÐ µr thÐ °n individual trÐ °Ã'â€"ts or chÐ °rÐ °ctÐ µrÃ'â€"stÃ'â€"cs. As cÃ'â€"tÐ µd ovÐ µrhÐ µÃ °d, Ã'â€"t Ã'â€"s Ð µnvÃ'â€"sÐ °gÐ µd thÐ °t Ð ° nomÃ'â€"nÐ µÃ µ wÃ'â€"ll hÐ °vÐ µ morÐ µ thÐ °n onÐ µ fÐ °vourÐ µd TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µ. In thÐ µ SÐ µlf-PÐ µrcÐ µptÃ'â€"on TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µ ProfÃ'â€"lÐ µ, Ð °n Ã'â€"ndÃ'â€"vÃ'â€"duÐ °l’s TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µs Ð °rÐ µ Ð °nÐ °lysÐ µd Ã'â€"n thrÐ µÃ µ cÐ °tÐ µgorÃ'â€"Ð µs:  · PrÐ µfÐ µrrÐ µd RolÐ µs – thosÐ µ functÃ'â€"ons whÃ'â€"ch onÐ µ Ã'â€"s snug plÐ °yÃ'â€"ng Ð °nd whÃ'â€"ch Ð °rrÃ'â€"vÐ µ nÐ °turÐ °lly.  · MÐ °nÐ °gÐ µÃ °blÐ µ RolÐ µs – thosÐ µ functÃ'â€"ons whÃ'â€"ch one cÐ °n plÐ °y Ã'â€"f nÐ µÃ µdÐ µd for thÐ µ Ð °dvÐ °ntÐ °gÐ µ of thÐ µ tÐ µÃ °m. ThÐ µsÐ µ mÐ °y bÐ µ cultÃ'â€"vÐ °tÐ µd to Ð µxpÐ °nd thÐ µ Ã'â€"ndÃ'â€"vÃ'â€"duÐ °l’s tÐ µÃ °mworkÃ'â€"ng Ð µxpÐ µrÃ'â€"Ð µncÐ µ.  · LÐ µÃ °st PrÐ µfÐ µrrÐ µd RolÐ µs – thosÐ µ functÃ'â€"ons whÃ'â€"ch thÐ µ onÐ µ doÐ µs not routÃ'â€"nÐ µly or snugly Ð °ssumÐ µ. It Ã'â€"s usuÐ °lly suggÐ µstÐ µd thÐ °t individuals Ð °voÃ'â€"ds Ð °ssÃ'â€"stÃ'â€"ng Ã'â€"n thÐ µsÐ µ locÐ °lÃ'â€"tÃ'â€"Ð µs, lÐ µst thÐ µ pÃ'â€"tfÐ °lls of thÐ µ dÐ µmÐ µÃ °nour outwÐ µÃ'â€"gh thÐ µ strÐ µngths. ThÐ µ nÃ'â€"nÐ µ TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µs mÐ °y furthÐ µrmorÐ µ bÐ µ cÐ °tÐ µgorÃ'â€"sÐ µd Ð °s ActÃ'â€"on, SocÃ'â€"Ð °l Ð °nd ThÃ'â€"nkÃ'â€"ng rolÐ µs:  · ActÃ'â€"on – ComplÐ µtÐ µr FÃ'â€"nÃ'â€"shÐ µr (CF); ImplÐ µmÐ µntÐ µr (IMP); ShÐ °pÐ µr (SH)  · SocÃ'â€"Ð °l – Co-ordÃ'â€"nÐ °tor (CO); RÐ µsourcÐ µ InvÐ µstÃ'â€"gÐ °tor (RI); TÐ µÃ °mworkÐ µr (TW)  · ThÃ'â€"nkÃ'â€"ng – MonÃ'â€"tor EvÐ °luÐ °tor (ME); PlÐ °nt (PL); SpÐ µcÃ'â€"Ð °lÃ'â€"st (SP) As cÃ'â€"tÐ µd ovÐ µrhÐ µÃ °d, no individual TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µ or Ð °ttrÃ'â€"butÐ µ should bÐ µ Ð °dvÃ'â€"sÐ µd Ã'â€"n Ã'â€"solÐ °tÃ'â€"on. RÐ °thÐ µr, thÐ µ Ð µxÐ °ct blÐ µnd Ð °nd Ã'â€"ntÐ µrÐ °ctÃ'â€"on of Ð °n Ã'â€"ndÃ'â€"vÃ'â€"duÐ °l’s TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µs – Ð °long wÃ'â€"th obsÐ µrvÐ µr Ã'â€"nput Ð °nd mÐ µthod of Ð °nswÐ µr to thÐ µ BTRSPI – Ð °ssÃ'â€"st to form Ð °nd Ð °nnouncÐ µ thÐ µ TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µ profÃ'â€"lÐ µ, wÃ'â€"th thÐ µ Ð µlÐ °borÐ °tÐ µ Ã'â€"ntÐ µrplÐ °y of TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µs mÐ °nÐ °gÐ µd by thÐ µ BÐ µlbÃ'â€"n Ð µ-Ã'â€"ntÐ µrplÐ °cÐ µ progrÐ °ms systÐ µm. WhÃ'â€"lst TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µs Ð °rÐ µ not probÐ °blÐ µ to chÐ °ngÐ µ spÐ µctÐ °culÐ °rly, pÐ µrsons who Ð °rÐ µ nÐ µw to Ð ° job or to thÐ µ world of work mÐ °y fÃ'â€"nd out morÐ µ fluctuÐ °tÃ'â€"on Ã'â€"n thÐ µÃ'â€"r prÐ µfÐ µrÐ µncÐ µs thÐ °n thosÐ µ who hÐ °vÐ µ bÐ µÃ µn Ð µmployÐ µd for much longÐ µr. SomÐ µ pÐ µrsons mÐ °y fÃ'â€"nd thÐ °t only two or thrÐ µÃ µ functÃ'â€"ons Ð °rrÃ'â€"vÐ µ Ã'â€"nto plÐ °y, whÃ'â€"lÐ µ othÐ µr onÐ µs mÐ °y fÃ'â€"nd thÐ °t thÐ µ kÃ'â€"nd of thÐ µÃ'â€"r job – or Ð ° JÐ °ck of Ð °ll trÐ °dÐ µs dÃ'â€"sposÃ'â€"tÃ'â€"on – cÐ °lls upon four or fÃ'â€"vÐ µ dÃ'â€"stÃ'â€"nct functÃ'â€"ons, whÃ'â€"ch cÐ °n bÐ µ pÐ µrformÐ µd Ð °s thÐ µ posÃ'â€"tÃ'â€"on dÐ µmÐ °nds.   ThÐ µ Ã'â€"nÃ'â€"tÃ'â€"Ð °l study undÐ µrtaken by MÐ µrÐ µdÃ'â€"th BÐ µlbÃ'â€"n Ã'â€"n thÐ µ 1970s wÐ °s undÐ µrtaken wÃ'â€"th Ð °n Ð µxpÐ µrÃ'â€"mÐ µnt of pÐ µÃ °k mÐ °nÐ °gÐ µrs. HowÐ µvÐ µr, study hÐ °s Ã'â€"llustrÐ °tÐ µd thÐ °t thÐ µ BTRSPI cÐ °n bÐ µ utÃ'â€"lÃ'â€"sÐ µd Ð °t Ð °ll opÐ µrÐ °tÃ'â€"onÐ °l lÐ µvÐ µls. In othÐ µr phrÐ °sÐ µs, TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µs Ð °rÐ µ Ð °pplÃ'â€"cÐ °blÐ µ for Ð °ny Ã'â€"ndÃ'â€"vÃ'â€"duÐ °l Ã'â€"n thÐ µ work nÐ °turÐ °l Ð µnvÃ'â€"ronmà  µnt who Ã'â€"ntÐ µrÐ °cts wÃ'â€"th othÐ µr onÐ µs Ð °nd dÐ µsÃ'â€"rÐ µs to dÃ'â€"scovÐ µr morÐ µ Ð °bout hÃ'â€"s or hÐ µr own dÐ µmÐ µÃ °nour, Ð °nd thÐ °t of collÐ µÃ °guÐ µs Ð °nd mÐ °nÐ °gÐ µrs. (Beck, Fisch Bergander 1999) ThÐ µ Observer Assessment boosts rÐ µsponsÐ µ Ð °ll through thÐ µ strÐ °tÐ ° of Ð °n Ð °dmÃ'â€"nÃ'â€"strÐ °tÃ'â€"on Ð °nd Ã'â€"s proposÐ µd to supply Ð ° unÃ'â€"vÐ µrsÐ °l dÃ'â€"Ð °lÐ µct to Ð °ddrÐ µss tough mÐ °ttÐ µrs whÃ'â€"ch mÃ'â€"ght orÃ'â€"gÃ'â€"nate confrontÐ °tÃ'â€"on Ã'â€"nsÃ'â€"dÐ µ tÐ µÃ °ms. Having Ð °nÐ °lysÐ µd the cÃ'â€"rculÐ °tÃ'â€"on of TÐ µÃ °m Roles midst UK MÐ °nÐ °gÐ µrs in thÐ µÃ'â€"r 1998 study, FÃ'â€"shÐ µr, HuntÐ µr MÐ °crosson wÐ µnt on to Ð µnquÃ'â€"rÐ µ thÐ µ usÐ µ of BÐ µlbÃ'â€"n for non-mÐ °nÐ °gÐ µrs. ThÐ µy Ð µngÐ °gÐ µd Ð ° group Ð µmployÐ µd workout Ã'â€"n thÐ µÃ'â€"r trÃ'â€"Ð °l, complÐ µtÃ'â€"ng thÐ °t BÐ µlbÃ'â€"n TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µ Ã'â€"dÐ µÃ ° could bÐ µ Ã'â€"dÐ µntÃ'â€"cÐ °lly Ð °pplÃ'â€"cÐ °blÐ µ to nonmÐ °nÐ °gÐ µrÃ'â€"Ð °l Ð °s wÐ µll Ð °s mÐ °nÐ °gÐ µrÃ'â€"Ð °l tÐ µÃ °ms.21 PlÐ µÃ °sÐ µ glÃ'â€"mpsÐ µ thÐ µ â€Å"FurthÐ µr RÐ µÃ °dÃ'â€"ng† pÐ ° rt for morÐ µ dÐ °tÐ ° consÃ'â€"dÐ µrÃ'â€"ng BÐ µlbÃ'â€"n Ð °nd mÐ °nÐ °gÐ µmÐ µnt. (Aritzeta, swailes McIntyre-Bhatty 2004)   RÐ µfÐ µrÐ µncÐ µs ArÃ'â€"tzÐ µtÐ °, AyÐ µstÐ °rÐ °n SwÐ °Ã'â€"lÐ µs, TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µ PrÐ µfÐ µrÐ µncÐ µ Ð °nd ConflÃ'â€"ct MÐ °nÐ °gÐ µmÐ µnt StylÐ µs (2005), pp. 15-20 ArÃ'â€"tzÐ µtÐ °, SÐ µnÃ'â€"or SwÐ °Ã'â€"lÐ µs, BÐ µlbÃ'â€"n TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µ PrÐ µfÐ µrÐ µncÐ µ Ð °nd CognÃ'â€"tÃ'â€"vÐ µ StylÐ µs: A ConvÐ µrgÐ µnt VÐ °lÃ'â€"dÃ'â€"ty Study (2004), pp.45-50 ArÃ'â€"tzÐ µtÐ °, SÐ µnÃ'â€"or SwÐ °Ã'â€"lÐ µs, BÐ µlbÃ'â€"n’s TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µ ModÐ µl: DÐ µvÐ µlopmÐ µnt, VÐ °lÃ'â€"dÃ'â€"ty Ð °nd ApplÃ'â€"cÐ °tÃ'â€"ons for TÐ µÃ °m BuÃ'â€"ldÃ'â€"ng (2007), pp. 100-110 ArÃ'â€"tzÐ µtÐ °, SwÐ °Ã'â€"lÐ µs McIntyrÐ µ-BhÐ °tty, FurthÐ µr EvÃ'â€"dÐ µncÐ µ on thÐ µ VÐ °lÃ'â€"dÃ'â€"ty of thÐ µ BÐ µlbÃ'â€"n TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µ SÐ µlf PÐ µrcÐ µptÃ'â€"on InvÐ µntory Ð °nd thÐ µ ObsÐ µrvÐ µr’s AssÐ µssmÐ µnt ShÐ µÃ µt (2004), pp. 65-70 ArÃ'â€"tzÐ µtÐ °, SwÐ °Ã'â€"lÐ µs SÐ µnÃ'â€"or, TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µs: PsychomÐ µtrÃ'â€"c EvÃ'â€"dÐ µncÐ µ, Construct VÐ °lÃ'â€"dÃ'â€"ty Ð °nd TÐ µÃ °m BuÃ'â€"ldÃ'â€"ng (2005) BÐ µck, FÃ'â€"sch BÐ µrgÐ °ndÐ µr, FunctÃ'â€"onÐ °l RolÐ µs Ã'â€"n Work Groups – An EmpÃ'â€"rÃ'â€"cÐ °l ApproÐ °ch to thÐ µ Study of Group RolÐ µ DÃ'â€"vÐ µrsÃ'â€"ty (1999), pp. 32-33 McIntyrÐ µ-BhÐ °tty SwÐ °Ã'â€"lÐ µs, ThÐ µ RÐ µlÃ'â€"Ð °bÃ'â€"lÃ'â€"ty of thÐ µ (BÐ µlbÃ'â€"n) TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µ SÐ µlf-PÐ µrcÐ µptÃ'â€"on InvÐ µntory: CronbÐ °ch’s Ð °lphÐ ° Ð °nd Ã'â€"psÐ °tÃ'â€"vÐ µ scÐ °lÐ µs (2000), pp. 65-75 MorÃ'â€"son, ChrÃ'â€"s, An InvÐ µstÃ'â€"gÐ °tÃ'â€"on of BÐ µlbÃ'â€"n TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µs Ð °s Ð ° MÐ µÃ °surÐ µ of BusÃ'â€"nÐ µss CulturÐ µ (2008), pp. 76-90 SwÐ °Ã'â€"lÐ µs ArÃ'â€"tzÐ µtÐ °, ScÐ °lÐ µ PropÐ µrtÃ'â€"Ð µs of thÐ µ TÐ µÃ °m RolÐ µ SÐ µlf-PÐ µrcÐ µptÃ'â€"on InvÐ µntory (2006), pp. 02-10 SwÐ °Ã'â€"lÐ µs McIntyrÐ µ-BhÐ °tty, UsÐ µs Ð °nd AbusÐ µs of RÐ µlÃ'â€"Ð °bÃ'â€"lÃ'â€"ty EstÃ'â€"mÐ °tÐ µs: ThÐ µ CÐ °sÐ µ of thÐ µ BÐ µlbÃ'â€"n TRSPI (2001), pp. 67-70

harmful) in Business Climate

Californias Environmental Policies (helpful/harmful) in Business Climate The impact of Californias Environmental Policies in the business climate has aroused an unending debate on whether it will result in positive or negative effects. Despite the conflicting arguments, the state’s authority has continued to push forward unabated to effect the policies. The clamor for even more aggressive environmental regulations is ongoing. The regulations are affecting all spheres of California’s livelihood.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Californias Environmental Policies (helpful/harmful) in Business Climate specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Positive Impact California has defied the national environmental trend with her sophisticated approach to environmental management. The policy aims at cutting greenhouse emissions. This will encourage technological innovation and efficient consumption and generation of energy. The California Air Resources Board (CARB) has adopted an economy-wide ca p-and-trade program. This program, drafted by professional environmentalists and other stakeholders, aims at reducing the overall state’s greenhouse gas emissions. The implementation of the clean energy law, AB32, will boost green business industry. The environmental policy is a positive signal to business in the state as it shows the authority’s commitment to promote clean energy and bring efficiency in the energy sector. The leadership role taken by the state in adopting clean technology has had a positive economic impact. California State is leading in venture capital financing to promote the use of clean energy. The state received over half a billion dollars in investments towards the end of last year. Positive prospects have been predicted for investments in California once the law is fully implemented. This can be attributed to the state’s resolve to embrace a clean energy economy (Davoudi, Crawford Mehmood, p. 128). Using Clean Energy The business enviro nment is set to reap benefits from the requirement by the law that all premises within the state invest in clean energy. This will see use of wind and solar energy. This will not only increase efficiency, but also reduce cost of production. The ultimate benefits will thus reach the business and consumers. Use of clean fuels and upgraded efficiency standards will encourage business stability. This is because businesses that pollute the environment by emitting dirty fossil fuels will be penalized for the equivalent deleterious impact on the environment. Such a measure will see many businesses opt for the clean energy. In turn, this will encourage innovativeness as firms adopt energy efficient- environmental friendly systems that do not compromise on profitability.Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The California environmental law has been designed elaborately to minim ize any chances of market abuse. This is by adopting measures that discourage market gaming or any other form of manipulations. Borrowing from past experiences that saw the emergence of new tendencies of market exchanges such as the 2008 incidence that birthed a housing crisis across the nation, CARB has made the program transparent and highly liquid. With the adoption of further recommendations from the Emmett Center on Climate Change, California is set to become America’s, as well as the world’s leader in clean technologies. Investing in such innovations will create a new platform for cutting edge business ventures in the state. The initial success registered so far only goes to indicate that sound environmental policies do not necessarily kill business. The success story of California may lead the way for other states in America and the world at large. The overall impact will be a clean world coupled with smart businesses (Davoudi, Crawford Mehmood, p. 129). The Do wn Side The California environmental policy could have a negative impact on the business climate. The restriction the law imposes on exploitation of oil reserves for instance discourages local drilling of oil. The stringent laws governing the drilling of oil have seen many investors relocate to other places. On the other hand, those investors who continue drilling have to fulfill many requirements set by the authorities. The reduced rate of drilling has negatively affected business. This is because America continues to rely on expensive foreign procured oil. The regulations on air pollution may have resulted in clean air within California. Unfortunately, this has been achieved by the leading emitters of air pollutants relocating to adjacent states of Nevada, Arizona, and Mexico. This translates into clean air within California but not in America and the world as a whole (Fulton, para 7). The claim to adopt clean energy systems by the local firms and homes means overhauling the syste ms currently in use. Reduction of air pollution requires installing scrubbers, using wind, and solar energy requires installation of turbines and solar panels and other related installations. Overall, this is a capital intensive venture. The resultant increased cost is forwarded to the final consumer negatively affecting their economic wellbeing (Fulton, para 9). Conclusion and Recommendations It is agreeable that environmental management and sustainable development is necessary for the world to overcome the looming threat of global warming. Many events directly linked to the impact of environmental degradation have been witnessed. The plan by California to adopt an ambitious climate policy to reduce greenhouse gas emission is one such step.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Californias Environmental Policies (helpful/harmful) in Business Climate specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The state has crafted laws that have g rave impacts on economic, as well as environmental status. The comprehensive policy aims to among others encourage use of clean energy such as solar and wind energy. It also aims at using ecofriendly strategies in running businesses. The benefits are numerous since apart from a clean environment, the law will encourage innovativeness. However, the law is not without pitfalls as experts warn that its way of implementation could negatively affect the business climate. The demand to invest in new energy systems and pollution reduction strategies is a capital intensive venture that could have far reaching economic impact. One of these effects would be the high cost of production and efficiency breakdown since energy sources that rely on nature do not guarantee efficiency. Overall, the plan is beneficial but would be more fruitful if the government adopts a policy that allows the private sector to adopt the green technology. Rushing the process will only result in firms adopting technolo gies that may compromise on efficiency or which may not be greener. The law may strictly set standards on the green technology to adopt. However, consideration should be put in place to ensure that green capital investments have a long payback period. The state should initiate low cost financing programs to encourage quick adoption of the new technologies especially by firms experiencing financial constraints. This is a part from formulating and implementing the strict environmental law. The enforcement of energy consumption reduction by relying on solar and wind energy may negatively affect efficiency. As such, the state should encourage gradual adoption of alternative energy sources while discouraging the use of conventional energy sources such as hydro and fuel based. This will over time transform California’s economic status while protecting the environment. Davoudi, Simin, Jenny Crawford Abid Mehmood. Planning for Climate Change: Strategies for Mitigation and Adaptatio n for Spatial Planners. London: Earthscan, 2009. Print. Fulton, William. Do Environmental Regulations Hurt the Economy? 2010. Web. https://www.governing.com/columns/transportation-and-infrastructure/Do-Environmental-Regulations-Hurt.htmlAdvertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More

Black Stereotypes essays

Black Stereotypes essays The American society has oppressed the black culture and society since the first slave was dragged onto American soil. Hollywood first embraced this oppressed image and depicted it on film. Early depictions of blacks on film (commonly played by whites in blackface) fulfilled the white stereotype of black society. As the American culture advanced, the image of blacks created on film was also altered. Blacks experienced a period of "whiteness" on film. During this time, Hollywood utilized "the equal-by-being-superior philosophy." (Bogle 178) This role was most successfully played by Sidney Poitier. As the cycle continued, the image of blacks on film regressed back to stereotypical depictions. Only this time blacks played the stereotyped characters. David Wark Griffith's epic film The Birth of a Nation (1915) used white people to play black characters. The whites wore blackface, common for the time, to create the appearance of being black. Under this guise, whites were able to portray a stereotyped depiction of the black people. The NAACP opposed the film immediately. Griffith himself was puzzled by the reactions. Griffith argued that The Birth of a Nation was about war and reconstruction, not race. This stance Griffith had taken only furthers the stereotype created on film. The idea that Griffith did not realize he was creating a highly racist film signifies the attitude of society at the time. It points to the idea that much of the American culture, at the time, was passively racist. They views that society had come to accept as reality, was not reality at all. The black depiction, as seen in The Birth of a Nation, continued for several years until Hollywood film reached another turning point. This turning point was the height of the integrationist era. The integrationist age spanned from about the mid to late 1940s to the late 1960s and into the early 1970s. During this age, several ac ...

New Charter School Proposal Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

New Charter School Proposal - Assignment Example However, henceforth first preference will be provided to students from its own school, the Mount Carmel High School. The Mount Carmel High School is being launched as a premium school with modern methods of learning. The school will engage its students in critical thinking, analysis, research and other resources that will markedly depart from the traditional pedagogy teaching alone. The school is open to students of all culture and beliefs without discrimination on the basis of race and religion. Learning by appropriate use of pedagogy, interactive technology, group discussions, and analysis will be encouraged. Students will also be encouraged to be involved in arts, music, and learning a foreign language. The learning curve with consist of the medium that engages the students’ interest from their early days in school. There will be extracurricular activities such as publishing of magazine, elocution, dance, an annual fair for the development of students’ mental faculties. Activities are aimed with the child’s all-round development in view. The school is expecting to start with the 6th grade with 80 students. This grade will be divided into four sections. So the teacher-students’ ratio will be not more than twenty students per teacher at any given time. The curriculum will consist of the key subjects, viz. language, mathematics, science, and social science. English will be the main language. Mathematics will comprise algebra and geometry. Students will have the options of studying the subjects through pedagogy, interactive technology or both. The options to study will be monitored regularly through appropriate tests. The students will be given enough time for learning and evaluations.

The Iran-Iraq War of the 1980s Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Iran-Iraq War of the 1980s - Essay Example The war, however, was frustrating for both parties, with a victory that was decisive eluding them both. Various factors relating to the regime changes in both countries led to a full-blown war between Iraq and Iran, and a proxy war between Iran & the US. The premise of this paper is to analyze this war and the role the US had to play in it. 2. Iraqi army and Iran troops In 1979, Saddam Hussein, a Sunni Muslim, took over power in Iraq, and set out to make Iraq the leading state in the Middle East (Kilborn 79). While Saddam and most of his supporters were Sunnis, the majority of Iraqi’s were Shia’s. Saddam did not trust them. Iran a neighbour to the east was predominantly Shia. In 1979, the Iranians, led by Ayatollah Khomeini, also overthrew their government, which had been under the Shah, a treasured ally of the US and Israel, and this led to an enmity brewing between these two entities. The revolution in Iran also marked the first time that clerics of Islam had harnesse d the authority of religion to overthrow a modern and secular state with a theocracy (Jacek 39). 3. Saddam Hussein’s personality The most potent catalyst for the Iraq-Iran war was Saddam Hussein’s personality. Repeatedly, he aggressed against the Iranians, and it was only a matter of time before war broke out. A number of reasons were to nudge Saddam into starting a war. These were longstanding issues like access to the gulf of Persia by the Iraqi’s, & a few recent ones like the mistrust that the Iraqi’s felt towards the Iranians and their new government (Phythian 71). The Iraqi has historically claimed the oil rich province of Khuzestan, which had a large Arab population of non-Persian population, with historical ties to Iraq. A few small islands in the gulf of Persia, which were militarily occupied by Iran, were also laid claim to by Iraq. There was also the Shatt al-Arab waterway, which was disputed by both countries. 4. Diplomatic ties between Iraq an d Iran Tensions between Tehran and Baghdad heightened in 1980. A group sponsored by the Iranians attempted to assassinate the foreign minister of Iraq, while Iraq captured and hanged Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr, the grand Ayatollah, and a staunch, public defender of the Islamic Revolution (Phythian 79). Diplomatic ties were cut, with minor skirmishes along the border. Iraq, in September, declared Shatt al-Arab waterway as their territory, before invading Iran on the 22nd. The invading Iraqi’s were remarkably successful at first, managing to gain large swathes of territory, including Khuzestan. However, their march began to lose steam, due in large part to the ferocity with which the Iranian public responded, and the bravery of the Air Force of Iran. In January of 1981, the Iranians mounted a counteroffensive, which was unsuccessful & led to a stalemate period (Kilborn 91). 5. United States’ Contributions During the war, both countries attacked oil tankers bound for each oth er’s nation, in an attempt to cripple their foreign exchange sources. As the stalemate dragged on, neutral vessels were attacked with increasing regularity in the middle 1980s. This was especially a paramount concern for Western oil importing countries. After Iranians attacked Kuwait’s vessels, the United States’ president, Ronald Regan, gave the green light for Kuwaiti vessels to fly under the US flag, placing them under the patronage of the US, and giving the US the right to strike back if these ships were attacked

Serenity in My Bedroom at Past Midnight Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Serenity in My Bedroom at Past Midnight - Essay Example I selected Khaled Hosseini’s The Kite Runner. I longed to travel to another culture, time, and place. I wanted to know about Afghan beliefs and practices, as well as their food, music, literature, and clothing. Mom prepared my favorite chicken sandwich with generous chicken breast strips and low-fat mayonnaise. She always puts diced onions, several slices of pickled cucumber, and tomatoes and used toasted wheat bread. I sat on my comfortable reading chair with sufficient light for my reading session. I took a moderate bite size of my sandwich and tasted the spicy, salty, sour mixture of the mayonnaise, pickled cucumber, onions, and pepper. The chicken tasted moist and fresh, as well as the tomatoes and crisp tomato. The cold wind rushed in spurts from my window. I sipped hot green tea for every bite of my oven-baked sandwich. The warmth of my green tea relaxed me further. The feel and smell of a good book refreshed my spirit. I prepared to embark on a long and wonderful journe y to a faraway place. â€Å"Some Good Things are Too Good to be True† But sometimes, good things come to an abrupt end, which began when I forgot to lock my door. My eight-year old cousin visited us this afternoon. Or rather, his parents left him overnight. They wanted some precious â€Å"us† time, and now I understand why. ... His shirt reminded me of a tire that ran on mud with stones and twigs sticking out. My mind somehow disconnected from my physical body, as it felt the horror of a good night saying goodbye. I saw my reading self as an image breaking into pieces, and I heard the clattering of the pieces on tiled floors. Then, I went back to the real world. I heard him whining about our outdated PlayStation and asked when we would purchase a suitable Xbox for his recreation purposes. And I smelled something else that did not register immediately in my nostrils. He had some green puke matter on his collar. I sensed his sticky hand on my arm, while he said that I was not listening to him. I felt sick to my stomach, and soon my sandwich tasted like iron. Heat rose to my neck. I must have turned into an eggplant by then. My perfect night laid in ruins, as I listened to him chatter about his computer games. Rhetorical Analysis I created these two different impressions of the same time and place through usin g the tools of description, narration, and example and illustration. Narration refers to telling about events and characters. I used narration to describe myself as a character in my own story and to narrate the events of my story. The first paragraph showed that I enjoyed classical music and set aside time for recreational reading: â€Å"I played Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart’s Piano Sonata No.16 In C Major to set the mood for my planned late night reading last Friday.† This paragraph also included my mother, who prepared an amazing chicken sandwich, one of my favorite comfort foods ever. Her preparation of my food and drinks indicated that she supported my reading sessions and that she was thoughtful and sweet. For

Global Operation management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Global Operation management - Essay Example â€Å"The company was then bought out by EBay†. (Grabionowski) EBay was already expanded globally when they purchased PayPal. The purchasing of PayPal required global operations management to help set up PayPal to be able to reach a global market. This was important so that PayPal could service as many customers as possible regardless of demographic location. This global transition had to happen so that PayPal could work in unison with E Bay on a global level. General Motors shows a great global management approach for the company. â€Å"General Motors is originally from the U.S. but has a larger market in China.† (GM2010) The global management approach by GM is a terrific demonstration of a successful global expansion. GM was able to achieve this success by allowing global operations management to oversee the necessary flaws in global marketing and perfecting them. This practice is proof of success. These examples demonstrate why it has become so important for companies to become competitive in a global business environment. Businesses are not just reaching out to areas nearby. There is a global market that can be reached if the right steps are taken. The further the global outreach means for a bigger profit. The advancements of other companies in other countries has allowed for companies in the United States to be better able to conduct business with the foreign companies. When companies in other countries are able to compete with the United States on the same technologically advanced level it creates a larger need for global operations. Other countries are expanding to the United States and it is important for the United States to expand to the other countries. It is certain that these advancements in other countries have affected the operations of American companies. Companies can either step it up globally or lose out. Many companies big and small are able to reach a global market. Business is not like it once was. The ability to seek business

Religion in Contamination Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Religion in Contamination - Essay Example Cosmopolitanism is still a brewing concept, although the idea has been traced to the cynic Diogenes of Ancient Greece (410 B.C.) who claimed world citizenship and to the 2nd century stoic Hierocles who drew the Concentric Circle Model of the â€Å"self† opening out for concern to family, local group, citizens, countrymen and humanity. Whether it is simply an idea, an ethical way-of-life or a movement, Cosmopolitanism is still to gain wider acceptance by present-day thinkers, moralists, and ideologists. In his book Cosmopolitanism: Ethics in a World of Strangers,† Appiah clarifies that Cosmopolitanism is basically an ethical principle. Still, he forewarns, not every ethical principle, inclusive of religion, which claims universality, is Cosmopolitanism. To understand this mind-set, Appiah’s aforesaid article deserves examination. Unlike his book Cosmopolitanism: Ethics in a World of Stranger, the article under consideration focuses less on Cosmopolitanism and more on the phenomenon of cultural change. Through personally drawn examples, expressed in a descriptive narrative way, Appiah shows that cultural assimilation takes various forms. And in his own home place in Asante, Ghana, Appiah finds exotic traditional customs being observed by fellow-Ghanaians, even as they show signs of modern 21st century living, wearing Western suits and using technology gadgets like cellphones.... Each and everyone is a citizen of the world, but the world is not closer to Cosmopolitanism, he adds, when homogeneity means only superficiality or artificiality in cultural changes. He describes how common it is for people to change in ways they like â€Å"inventing new forms of differences: new hairstyles, new slang, even new religions† (Appiah article, 2006). Also, some changes may be liked, while others disliked. For example, the influence of global economy may be a problem to those who have to adjust crops and livelihood, although acceptable even exciting for the well-placed who find opportunities in global change. In the case of religion, Christianization may have succeeded by way of mass conversions, but some elements of folk religious practices continue to prevail showing the fact that Christianity has been accepted in external form, but not in essence. In this article, Appiah treats religion in two distinct ways: First as a cultural artifice, subject to change as any other, and secondly as a dangerous new form of anti-cosmopolitanism. In the first form, religion plays the role of a cultural artifact, which undergoes change, and evokes different responses, good or bad. In this way, religious cultural change is like other cultural changes that are brought about by increased globalization of ideas. It plays a common role as other aspects of culture, such as dress, language or custom. It simply affects change, and some people like that, some do not. Appiah thinks that diversity in culture, including religious traditions, is an acceptable situation. However, the process of cultural change which creates only one cultural mode is unacceptable. This is so, since

Chaleffs (1995) perception of leaders and followers Essay

Chaleffs (1995) perception of leaders and followers - Essay Example Leadership styles are an important component of a medical organization, but it is important to note that followers are responsible and determine their behaviour, which has an effect on service delivery. The relationship between a leader and a follower should be interrogated to ensure it is follower-centred for effectiveness and efficiency at a medical centre. Follower’s behaviours bear significant impacts owing to a leader’s style that is mediated by the self-determination of a follower. The confident demeanour of a leader can be cited as a factor contributing to their competence, but it can also be misconstrued to indicate a leader who stifles the participation of followers. It can be deduced that exhibition of nonverbal confident demeanour on the side of leaders contributes to decreased participation of followers in discussions (Chaleff, 2009). Staff nurses form an important component in any medical organization owing to the immense responsibilities they shoulder as they dedicate their services towards patient care. Nurses provide the direct contact between a medical organization and patients. This contact point is therefore, of immense importance in the promotion of values and policies upheld by hospital organizations. This in mind, the nursing fraternity within the organization is bound by some established structure, which is responsible for the oversight of responsibilities assigned to individual nurses. This hierarchal structure has clearly identified nurse leaders who work in tandem with other departments and report to the management of the organization (Chaleff, 2009). The clinical example to be cited is the routine activities of staff nurses who take care of the sick daily and are tasked with the responsibility of responding to emergencies. These staff nurses bear immense power collectively and as individuals and they determine the success or failure of a medical organization. The management of hospitals including nurse

Global Operation management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Global Operation management - Essay Example â€Å"The company was then bought out by EBay†. (Grabionowski) EBay was already expanded globally when they purchased PayPal. The purchasing of PayPal required global operations management to help set up PayPal to be able to reach a global market. This was important so that PayPal could service as many customers as possible regardless of demographic location. This global transition had to happen so that PayPal could work in unison with E Bay on a global level. General Motors shows a great global management approach for the company. â€Å"General Motors is originally from the U.S. but has a larger market in China.† (GM2010) The global management approach by GM is a terrific demonstration of a successful global expansion. GM was able to achieve this success by allowing global operations management to oversee the necessary flaws in global marketing and perfecting them. This practice is proof of success. These examples demonstrate why it has become so important for companies to become competitive in a global business environment. Businesses are not just reaching out to areas nearby. There is a global market that can be reached if the right steps are taken. The further the global outreach means for a bigger profit. The advancements of other companies in other countries has allowed for companies in the United States to be better able to conduct business with the foreign companies. When companies in other countries are able to compete with the United States on the same technologically advanced level it creates a larger need for global operations. Other countries are expanding to the United States and it is important for the United States to expand to the other countries. It is certain that these advancements in other countries have affected the operations of American companies. Companies can either step it up globally or lose out. Many companies big and small are able to reach a global market. Business is not like it once was. The ability to seek business

Chaleffs (1995) perception of leaders and followers Essay

Chaleffs (1995) perception of leaders and followers - Essay Example Leadership styles are an important component of a medical organization, but it is important to note that followers are responsible and determine their behaviour, which has an effect on service delivery. The relationship between a leader and a follower should be interrogated to ensure it is follower-centred for effectiveness and efficiency at a medical centre. Follower’s behaviours bear significant impacts owing to a leader’s style that is mediated by the self-determination of a follower. The confident demeanour of a leader can be cited as a factor contributing to their competence, but it can also be misconstrued to indicate a leader who stifles the participation of followers. It can be deduced that exhibition of nonverbal confident demeanour on the side of leaders contributes to decreased participation of followers in discussions (Chaleff, 2009). Staff nurses form an important component in any medical organization owing to the immense responsibilities they shoulder as they dedicate their services towards patient care. Nurses provide the direct contact between a medical organization and patients. This contact point is therefore, of immense importance in the promotion of values and policies upheld by hospital organizations. This in mind, the nursing fraternity within the organization is bound by some established structure, which is responsible for the oversight of responsibilities assigned to individual nurses. This hierarchal structure has clearly identified nurse leaders who work in tandem with other departments and report to the management of the organization (Chaleff, 2009). The clinical example to be cited is the routine activities of staff nurses who take care of the sick daily and are tasked with the responsibility of responding to emergencies. These staff nurses bear immense power collectively and as individuals and they determine the success or failure of a medical organization. The management of hospitals including nurse

Biblical World View Essay Essay Example for Free

Biblical World View Essay Essay In The Essence of the New Testament: A Survey, Towns and Gutierrez, the authors concur with other Biblical scholars understanding that â€Å"the teaching of Romans is not only crucial for Christian theology, but the greatest revivals and reformations throughout the history of Christianity have resulted from an increased understanding and application of the teaching of this epistle† This essay will attempt to summarize how the first 8 chapters of this amazingly written Book of Romans shapes my own personal Biblical worldview. I will first look at 4 areas in which Paul specifically presents clear evidence to his readers of the truth of the Gospel Message. The first area He presents is in regard to the natural world that surrounds all mankind. In Romans 1: 19,20 Paul writes â€Å"For what can be known about God is plain to them, because God has shown it to them. Ever since the creation of the world his eternal power and divine nature, invisible though they are, have been understood and seen through the things he has made. † I remember as a child in Sunday school that I was often taught about God by looking at natural world that surrounded me. The sunrise, the rainbow, the oceans and many more wonders that pointed me to a God who was not only very powerful but very loving, too. He gives us rain so the soil can produce food and sunlight to give warmth and water to provide life to every living thing He created. Paul presented this basic truth about God because all mankind can easily relate to the amazing natural world that affects his of her everyday life. God has created an amazing order to His World so man must know that the world they live in is a divine creation. Seeing God in nature is not only evidence for me that He is real, but also I see this natural world as another of the beautiful gifts that He gives us to enjoy. And for me, it is a strong reminder each day that God loves me. The second area Paul focuses on is our own human identity. Mans identity is built on what he has clearly seen in nature. So, Paul quickly moves to point out that once humans have experienced Gods creation and they choose not to  honor Him â€Å"They are without excuse; for though they knew God, they did not honor Him as God of give thanks to Him, but they became futile in their thinking, and their senseless minds were darkened. † Romans1 :20-21. Paul goes on to list the many sinful ways of the darkened minds that chose not to honor God. The inspired list of sins that Paul declares leaves no room for any man to truly believe that he is without sin. It is in that list of sins that Paul shows the separation of all mankind from God. It is only in that place of acknowledgment of sin that man can begin to understand his or her human identity. My own human identity is shaped more and more each day as I choose to stand before God acknowledging that I am a sinner. I have a world view that is changing to become more understanding of the need to spread the Gospel message because of my increased awareness of my own sin nature. The third and forth areas of Pauls writing in Romans builds on the first two. Now that mankind has had the obvious evidence of the existence of God in Nature, and now that mankind has seen that he fits somewhere on the list of behaviors that do not honor God, Paul moves on to point out the affects of ungodly living. Mankind began to worship idols, and humans turned against each other as the result of turning their hearts and minds against God. Because of mans choice to turn from God, the sinful nature of man was as plain to see in the culture of the day as was the nature of God was plain to see in the natural world He had created. Any man whose heart was not completely heartened could begin to see that Paul†s message about God was full of truth. When I look back at the times in my life when I have lived without God. Or when I live knowing Him without really realizing that He is in control, not me; I begin to feel the emptiness that living without Him brings to me and those around me. Not only emptiness, but sometimes total chaos due to lack of purpose. As I realize my own personal struggles with faith, I can see how this world needs a savior, too! Paul presents evidence of a people and of a culture that has turned from God. As the Jews put themselves above Greeks and dissension grew among so many different cultures, the will of God had become lost. Pauls writing in Romans made clear what Gods will is for mankind. To summarize, Paul presented a biblical world view in Romans that no man could truthfully reject. God can be seen in nature. Just as God can be seen in nature so can the sinful nature of man be seen in culture we live in. All mankind knows this truth in their heart yet all men refuse to totally honor God. â€Å"Since all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God;† Romans 3:23 Paul sets the stage for mankind to accept the Gospel message of forgiveness of sins through Jesus Christ. Thank God for the inspired writing that is the Book of Romans. It can inspire all its reader to take a trip on the Roman Road to Salvation.

Communication Media for Banking Industry

Communication Media for Banking Industry Chapter 1: Introduction Introduction Todays world is world of technology. Everyday a new technology is introduced that can assist people in order to do their daily works easily and finally increase the quality of their life. These new technologies help their users in different aspects of their life, by saving time, doing works faster and better with lower level of error. The rapid development of information technology has brought unprecedented influence on the life of millions of people around the globe. Various activities were handled electronically through the adoption of IT in the workplace or at home, for example, e-mail, e-commerce and e-government (Guriting and Ndubisi, 2006). One of these technologies that effects most people around the world is Internet, which was born in the last years of 20 century and rapidly broke boundaries, time and place. It brought more easily communication ways from usual daily activities to high level official activities. Online shopping and paying is a symbol of developing internet te chnology. People can stay at home, be at their work place, or their car or any other place, and order their food, clothes , shoes and pay online and receive their orders without spending time for going to the shopping center or finding parking .so online paying helped its users saved their time and their money. Next generation of online paying is internet banking, which means doing transactions online without going to the bank, staying in long queues, and without direct face-to-face interacting. The terms of PC banking, online banking, Internet banking, and mobile banking refer to a number of ways in which customers can access their banks without having to be physically present at a bank branch. PC Banking relates to every banking business transacted from a customers PC. This can be done through online banking, in which bank transactions are conducted within a closed network, or via Internet banking, which permits the customer to perform transactions from any terminal with access to the Internet. Mobile banking is the implementation of banking and trading transactions using an Internet-enabled wireless device. (Mobile phones, PDAs, handheld computers, etc.). Thus mobile banking (m-banking) is a subset of Internet banking, I banking, (Hazell and Raphael, 2001) The banking industry is using the new communication media to offer its services to the customers with convenience. Using Internet banking and its nearest technology, mobile banking, is increased during these years around the world. Malaysian penetration of Internet banking and mobile banking, as the base infrastructure for this paper, is mentioned as below: In all five continents, penetration of internet and mobile banking are rapidly increasing. Especially in most developed countries, trend of internet banking is increasing, also using mobile banking, is increasing. Most of Europe has embraced GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) as a format for wireless technology. This more standardized wireless telecommunications infrastructure has yielded a higher level of acceptance and penetration, which has led to speculation that Europe will drive innovations in wireless communications, this technology can use to do both internet banking and mobile banking. Although still need time to adapt the mobile banking. In most countries this service is available but Because of its price and some uncertainty about its security, mobile banking is not popular yet. North America represents the flip side of the European situation. Wireless communications, though far from rare, lag behind Europes penetration levels, while participation in the wired I nternet is the highest in the world. The North American wireless infrastructure is not as widespread as standardized as its European counterpart. In the Middle East, has secured 15 wireless infrastructure contracts in regional markets over the last 12 months, most recently in Kuwait. Motorolas work in Kuwait involves a $14 million contract with wireless GSM operator MTC to implement a countrywide capacity enhancement. The dual-band network implementation will enable cell phones to utilize the most efficient network route and frequency, thus optimizing network performance. In spite of the fact that internet and mobile banking has rapidly growth in all countries, but still there are people from developing countries that do not interest in use this facility. People of these countries are concerning about their personal information, privacy and security, and these are factors that will increase their uncertainty level of using internet banking(East African and West African countries in Malaysia interviewing). This anxiety can refer to their cultural background. culture can refer to the customs and beliefs of a nation that stay with people for years, and changing of fundamental of this culture is not possible easily. So culture of a country can affect the culture of sub-societies in that country, such as organizational culture, educational culture and etc. So each nation and country has especial fundamental in order to go to the technology world and use technology as an assistant in their life. Statement of the Problem According to the previous discussion, although there is rapidly increasing in internet banking penetration but still there is some unsafe feeling towards it. That means there are factors that can affect acceptance and adaption of a technology, beside existing factors such as usefulness, ease of use, subjective norm and etc. While essential research has been directed toward understanding the adoption and diffusion of IT (Prescott and Conger, 1995), there have been a few studies that specifically examine possible cultural effects on the adoption and dispersion of new information technologies (Raman and Wei, 1992). Research on the impact of corporate culture on IT acceptance provides a useful viewpoint (Cooper, 1994; Kydd and Jones, 1989) but ethnic or national culture research undoubtedly has a special character. The problem to be investigated is that there is no enough research that works on the effect of national culture on acceptance a technology. Thereafter This study examines the role of culture on technology acceptance model (TAM) adaption and tries to give an in depth view of Hofstede Cultural Dimensions towards acceptance of a technology (Power distance index:PID, Individualism/collectivism, Uncertainty avoidance). It is hoped that conclusions can be drawn and opened a window for managers and all who want to bring world of technology to their life and work. Research Objective The main aim of this paper is finding the role of culture in acceptance a new technology. That can be interpreted to culture role on the Technology Acceptance Model. Beside the main objective this study pursues following objectives: Giving the overall view of Hofstede Cultural Dimensions in different countries base on their Power Distance Index, Individualism/Collectivism and Uncertainty avoidance Opening a new window for all who work in IT and IS implementing, to bring technology in multinational and international organizations. Handling the problem that faced in multi-cultural society according to each person cultural background. Research Questions Main question can be draw as below: Is there any effect by Hofstede cultural dimensions (PDI, IND/CLV, UAI) on TAM This main question can be expended as below: Is there any effect by Hofstede cultural dimensions (PDI, IND/CLV, UAI) on Perceived Usefulness (PU)? Is there any effect by Hofstede cultural dimensions (PDI, IND/CLV, UAI) on Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU)? Is there any effect by Hofstede cultural dimensions (PDI, IND/CLV, UAI) on Subjective Norm (SN)? Is there any effect by Hofstede cultural dimensions (PDI, IND/CLV, UAI) on Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC)? Is there any effect by Hofstede cultural dimensions (PDI, IND/CLV, UAI) on Behavioral Intention(BI) to use internet banking? Scope of the Study In order to achieve the best results in finding different attitude towards technology acceptance (Internet banking) among different people from different nations, student of four universities in Malaysia have been selected to administer the questionnaire in order to examine attitude towards internet and mobile banking. Because of large scope of this study and necessity of collaboration of more than 30 countries from the five continents in Malaysia, embassy of ten countries and their referees took part in this research by filling up questionnaires that was distributed by hand and by e-mail, also staffs of some international organizations in Malaysia cooperate in this research, and the last one, social networks such as facebook came to assist this paper by finding the different others countries communities in Malaysia. Significance of the Study As firms internationalize, there is a growing need to understand how cultural factors might affect a multinational organizations ability to adopt and utilize IT. Further studies may lead to knowledge that will help IT researchers and practitioners in improving the technology transfer process. Such knowledge will be worth to practitioners, because it could spell the difference between achievement and collapse in implementing IT. In the movement toward globalization of markets and corporate multinationalism, the value of more cross-cultural research is clear (Cash, McFarlan, McKenney and Applegate, 1992). In a large survey of information systems more than half of the respondents felt that global IT issues were keys to their firms future success (Ives and Jarvenpaa, 1991). As firms grow their operations in the international arena, there is a need to exploit the power of IT to communicate among these widespread locations and to coordinate activities both within and across countries. Henc e, it is important for the managers of these firms to learn, as much as they can, about the cross-cultural adoption and use of IT (Couger,1986; Kumar and Andersen,1990) Such understanding can make the distinction between success and failure in executing information technology and system. The study will be clear the differences and similarities between countries cultures, and will give nations attitude towards technology acceptance. This study will be the first one that combines culture and TAM across the five continents. The result can assists managers and technology developers around the world in order to apply IT through international organization. The unique results of this study can be a base for future research and open a window to work on TAM as viewpoint of culture. Summary and Organization of the Remaining Chapters The main part of the dissertation is divided into five Chapters, which will be briefly introduced: Chapter1: Introduction The introduction section a projects a brief overview of the study is provided. Chapter 2: Literature Review In this section, selected academic literature related to Technology acceptance model, related theory and Hofstede cultural dimension and its related academic literatures. Then conceptual framework and steps to developing the hypothesis are discussed. Chapter 3: Methodology The methodology section critically examines a range of research approaches and techniques. Sample and the size of samples, also one of the most important for this study, finding the sample from different countries who stay in Malaysia for study or work. The research technique that is selected for this study is Design of Experiment. Chapter 4: Analysis and Results In the analytical section, the research findings are explained briefly according to the data collection and analysis. Chapter 5: Discussion In discussion section the further interpretation and explanation the findings is provided and comparisons is made between the findings with other literature in the area of the study. Then the findings are summarized; recommendations for future research and the practicing manager are made. Chapter 2: Literature Review Introduction This chapter is included of backgrounds and literatures in Technology acceptance Model, Hofstede cultural Dimensions and previous researchs including of cultural role on TAM. This chapter will prove the unique work of this paper. Framework, definitions and hypothesis development for this study, will mention and discuss in this chapter. Technology Acceptance Model Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is one of the most influential extensions of Ajzen and Fishbeins theory of reasoned action (TRA) that has been widely used to predict user acceptance and use based on perceived usefulness and ease of use. According to TRA, an individuals behavioural intention, which results in actual behaviour, is influenced by person subject norm and attitude, and the attitude is influenced by individual beliefs (Ajzen Fishbein, 1980). According to the Davis (1989), TAM hypothesizes that behavioural intention is a significant determinant of actual system use, and that behavioural intention is determined by two relevant beliefs, perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use. In TAM, an individuals principle determines the attitude toward using the system. The attitude develops the intention to use. Perceived usefulness is related to productivity but perceived ease-of-use is related to effort (Venkatesh, 1999). This intention influences the decision of actual technology usage. These causalities were largely studied and accepted (Suh and Han, 2002; Morris and Dillon, 1997; Teo, Lim, Lai, 1999). The most significant results of Davis study was the strong relation between Usefulness and Usage. Users of a technology try to cope with difficulties of a system, although difficulty of use can discourage adoption of a useful system, no amount of ease of use can give back for a system that does not perform a useful function.TAM used in several IS studies and proved useful determining technology acceptance, especially to explain computer usage behaviour. This justifies why TAM is suitable for studies in computer acceptance. Given the rising popularity of Electronic_ Commerce technology such as Internet banking and Mobile Banking and the dynamic user behaviors identified above, the TAM is a suitable framework for this study. There are other widely used and well known frameworks, such as uses and gratification or diffusion of innovation, but the TAM is considered the best fit for this study because other frameworks focus on different levels of analysis (macro, mezzo, or micro) or differ ent topics of emphasis (diffusion mechanisms, etc.). If modified appropriately, the TAM is the most effective tool for a study like this one, which investigates factors relating to usage and adoption, such as cultural dimensions. (Suh et al., 2002; Morris et al., 1997; Teo et al., 1999). The TAM was stimulated by the theory of reasoned action(1980), which argues that both the attitude toward an action and subjective norms have an impact on behavioral intention, which in turn affects how people perform an action. The TAM was an early attempt to apply psychological factors to information systems and computer adoption. It assumed that perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use were major influences on an individuals attitude toward using technology and, thus, ultimately, were related to actual use (Davis, 1989). Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) has been widely used to predict user acceptance and use based on perceived usefulness and ease of use (Davis, 1989). TAM conceives that behavioural intention is a significant determinant of actual system use, and that behavioural intention is determined by two main beliefs, perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use. The perceived usefulness refers to the degree to which an individual believes that using a particular system would enhance his/her job performance. The perceived ease of use refers to the degree to which an individual believes that using a particular system would be free of physical and mental efforts. In TAM, an individuals belief settles on the attitude toward using the system and, in turn, the attitude develops the intention to use. This intention influences the decision of actual technology usage. With the bang of the Internet and convergence technologies, researchers have modified TAM to demonstrate the empirical evidences of it in the convergence context. In fact, many researchers have proposed various extended TAM. For instance, Moon and Kim (2001) suggest a model where perceived playfulness was described as one of the antecedents of attitude toward Web surfing. They noted that most prior TAM research had focused only on extrinsic motivation, not on intrinsic motivation. Morris and Dillon (1997) found that TAM contributes to the prediction of individual usage of software. The motivational model that was adapted by Davis, Bagozzi, Warshaw (1992) employs two key constructs: extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. According to Venkatesh and Speier (1999), extrinsic motivation refers to the performance of an activity. Extrinsic motivation is perceived to help achieve valued outcomes that are distinct from the activity itself, such as improving job performance, pay, etc. Intrinsic motivation refers to the performance of an activity for no reason other than the process of performing it. In the case of technology a cceptance studies, perceived usefulness is an example of extrinsic motivation. Davis et al. (1992) found that perceived enjoyment was significantly related to the perceived ease of use. In the research on the usage intentions for information systems, Heijden (2004) adds perceived an enjoyment to TAM model. Cheong and Park (2005) also develop a more comprehensive version of TAM to better reflect mobile Internet context. Their model employs perceived playfulness, contents quality, system quality, Internet experience and perceived price level, in addition to perceived usefulness and ease of use. For the mobile services, Nysveen et al. (2005) investigate the consumers intention to use mobile services, which shows the four overall influences on usage intention: motivational influences, attitudinal influences, normative pressure, and perceived control. Similarly, Fogelgren-Pedersen (2005) found that connection stability and geographic coverage are one of the significant variables of perceived relative advantage in mobile Internet. Also, in the worldwide mobile Internet user survey, Fife (2005) found that perceived enhanced utility of mobile services are the strong value motivating use of mobile technology. While these studies found the significant perceived variables, they still do not find variables specific to mobile Internet. Viswanath Venkatesh, Morris, B.Davis, D.Davis (2003) worked on this issue an d eight prominent models are discussed, the eight models and their extensions are empirically compared, a unified model is formulated that integrates elements across the eight models, and the unified model is empirically validated. Using data from four organizations over a six-month period with three points of measurement, the eight models explained between 17% and 53% of the variance in user intentions to use information technology. Next, a unified model, called the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT), was formulated, with four core determinants of intention and usage, and up to four moderators of key relationships. UTAUT provides a useful tool for managers needing to assess the likelihood of success for new technology introductions and helps them understand the drivers of acceptance in order to proactively design interventions targeted at populations of users that may be less inclined to adopt and use new systems. Theory of reason Action(TRA) Drawn from social Psychology.TRA is one of the most fundamental and inflectional theories of human behaviour. It has been used to predict a wide range of behaviours .Davis et al.(1989) applied TRA to individual acceptance of technology and found that the variance explained was largely consistent with studies that employed TRA in context of other behaviours Technology Acceptance Model(TAM) TAM is tailored to IS contexts, and was designed to predict information technology acceptance and usage on the job. Unlike TRA, the final conceptualization of TAM excludes the attitude construct in order to better explain intention parsimoniously. TAM2 extended TAM by including subjective norm as an additional predictor of intention in the case of mandatory settings (Venkatesh and Davis 2000). TAM has been widely applied to a diverse set of technologies and users. Theory of Planned Behaviour TPB extended TRA by adding the construct of perceived behavioural control is theorized to be an additional determinant of intention and behavioural .Ajzan(1991) presented a review of several studies they successfully used TPB to predict intention and behaviour in a wide variety of settings. TPB has been successfully applied to the understanding of individual acceptance and usage of many different technologies (Tailor and Todd, 1995). A related model is the Decomposed Theory of Planned Behaviour (DTPB). In terms of predicting intention, DTPB is identical to TPB. In contrast to TPB but similar to TAM, DTPB decomposes attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioural control into its the underlying belief structure within technology adaption contexts. Combined TAM and TPB It is a combination of TPB TAM to provide a hybrid model (Taylor and Todd,1995) Innovation Diffusion Theory (IDT) Grounded in sociology, IDT (Rogers 1964) has been used since the 1960s to study a variety of innovations, ranging from agricultural tools to organizational innovation (Tornatzky and Klein 1982). Within information systems, Moore and Benbasat (1991) adapted the characteristics of innovations presented in Rogers and refined a set of constructs that could be used to study individual technology acceptance. Moore and Benbasat (1996) found support for the predictive validity of these innovation Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) One of the most powerful theories of human behavior is social cognitive theory (Bandura 1986). Compeau and Higgins (1995) applied and extended SCT to the context of computer; while Compeau and Higgins (1995) also employed SCT, it was to study performance and thus is outside the goal of the current research. Compeau and Higgins'(1995) model studied computer use but the nature of the model and the underlying theory allow it to be extended to acceptance and use of information technology in general. The original model of Compeau and Higgins (1995) used usage as a dependent variable but in keeping with the spirit of predicting individual acceptance, In 2008, Ima, I., Kim, Y., Han, H. did a revising research on Venkatesh work. They claimed that in previous study there seem to be two critical factors that are overlooked or have received inadequate attention—perceived risk (PR) and technology type. PR has been recognized as an important factor and was modelled as a precursor of perceived usefulness (PU), and a sub construct of others, such as trust (or as its precursor). In their study PR and technology type, consider as additional to the moderating variables in UTAUT and was tested how they moderate the effects of PU and PEU on users intention to use a technology. It was shown the PR and technology type were moderating variables. Kim (2006) added two new constructs, Perceived Cost Savings and Companys Willingness to Fund, and two causal relationships, Job Relevance and Experience, as moderating effects to previous existing model and proved that there is a strong significant relationships between PCS and CWTF and behaviral i ntention to use a technology. also moderating effects of job relevance was proved , also found that an individuals intention to use mobile wireless technology was significantly affected by CWF. Kim claimed that a company must provide technology to their employees to help them perform their jobs. Finally, the individuals adopt a technology if it is within their prior experience, which was found to be significant moderator between CWF and BI. Prior studies based on TAM did not examine the direct link from self-efficacy to behavioral intention assuming the full mediation of perceived ease of use but Khalifa (2008) integrated the theory of planned behavior (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975; Ajzen and Madden, 1986) and the technology acceptance model (TAM) (Davis, 1989) to explain the adoption of m-commerce as a new technology. He added subjective norm to the main block of TAM as an factors that have positive direct effect on the individuals intention and Self-efficacy as a positive direct effec t on the individuals intention to adopt m-commerce. During the years researchers examined different items and their relations with TAM models, they have used original framework of TAM and found relation between them. In paper by June Lu at el.(2008) was worked on different aspects of new technology in china, such as WMDS, these items are type of technology ,functionality of that technology, interface design, Personal innovativeness in information technology (PIIT), Facilitating conditions, Social influences ,security, trust , privacy and reliability of that technology. The result of this paper showed that intention to use WMDS via mobile phones in China was dependent on an individuals perceptual beliefs about the target services in terms of their usefulness and eases of use, and also relied on PIIT and mobile trust belief. According to Dong-Hee Shin(2007) , who work on Wi-Bro acceptance in Korea, users perceptions are significantly associated with their motivation to use Wi-Bro. Specifically, perceived quality and perceived availability are found to have significant effect on users extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. These factors play as enhancing factors to attitudes and intention. In 2005, Kim et al. Work on a Value-based Adoption of a technology such as mobile banking. A Value-based Adoption Model (VAM) would be able to capture the monetary sacrifice element and present adoption as a comparison of benefits and costs. By combination of Value-based Adoption Model (VAM) of M-Internet and by integrating the most relevant findings of the technology adoption and value literature, Kim(2005) designed its framework by dividing it to benefits and sacrifices. He suggested that customers evaluation of a product includes both cognitive and affective elements, and that products are purchased for their utilitarian and hedonic benefits, so it can be proved that usefulness and enjoyment as the benefit components of perceived value. Perceived sacrifices are both monetary and non-monetary. Monetary spending includes the actual price of the product, and it is generally measured based on customers perceptions of the actual price paid. Non-monetary costs usually include time, effo rt and other unsatisfactory spending for the purchase and consumption of the product. Yang (2004) did a research that examines different items that could affect technology acceptance. Innovation, past adaption behaviour, knowledge, technology cluster, age, gender and specialization were items that were tested in relation with technology acceptance in Yang study. He provided insights into the relationships between PU, PEOU, AT, consumer innovation adoption behaviour, and demographic variables and also offers empirical data to support the suitability of the TAM through examining the emerging M-commerce technology and application. PU is found to predict consumer adoption of M-commerce. Consumer innovativeness introduced into the TAM research to expand the scope of TAM applicability to M-commerce that is yet to accumulate a critical mass in the diffusion process. According to the Lo ´ pez-Nicola ´ s, Molina-Castillo, Harry Bouwman (2008), social factors are the important factors that influence on peoples decision to adopt a new technology such as mobile services. They try to evaluate the impact of different determinants on Behavioural Intention in the adoption of advanced mobile services, by combining acceptance models with diffusion theory models theory. In particular, we assumed that social influence may be a key element in peoples intention to use the services and applications. Social influence was defined as the degree to which individuals believed that others thought they should use advanced mobile services. The views of friends and relatives have a significant impact on using mobile services, Lo ´ pez-Nicola ´ s et al. proved that as a manager, that PEOU and behavioural intention depended significantly on social influences, so for bringing new services and technologies for organisations, notice to the employees cultural backgrou nd is important. In a study by Amin (2008) who used original TAM model to finding factors affecting the intentions of customers in Malaysia to use mobile banking, proved that bank managers should create favourable perceptions concerning the usefulness and ease of use among mobile phone credit card customers. Creating these positive perceptions might be achieved by offering free seminars to customers about the ease of use of the system Malaysian consumers often take up marketing initiatives of this type. Additionally, the banks should provide a mini-guide at all branches that provides succinct and cogent information concerning the efficiency, effectiveness and risk-free attributes of the mobile phone credit card system. In 2009 GU, Lee, Suh, integrated the fragmented models such as the extended TAM and the trust-based TAM into a unified model of mobile banking. They found that self-efficiency is the strongest antecedent of perceived ease-of-use, which directly and indirectly affected behavioural intention through perceived usefulness, also was found the structural assurances are the strongest antecedent of trust, which could increase behavioural intention of mobile banking. Gu et al. research was listed most important work on technology acceptance that used TAM as base. For example Taylor and Todd (1995) selected computing resource center and worked on usefulness, ease of use, attitude and behavioural intention, they worked on Subjective norm and Perceived behavioural control as their study antecedence (complete list of work on TAM was brought in Appendix A) Hofstede Cultural dimensions: Culture has been defined according to several perspectives. Definitions go from the most complex and the most comprehensive (e.g. Kluckhohn, 1962) to the most simple (e.g. Triandis, 1972, Hofstede, 1997). According to Kluckhohn (1962), Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement of human groups, including their embodiments in artifacts (p.73). Hofstede cultural dimensions served as the most influential culture theory among social science research (Nokata and Sivakumar, 2001). In addition, Hofstede cultural framework has also received strong empirical support by Sondergaard work (1994).Geert Hofstede research gives insights into other cultures so that it will be more effective when interacting with people in other countries. If understood and applied properly, this information should reduce level of nuisance, concern, and distress. But most important, Geert Hofstede will give the edge of understanding which translates to more successful results. In 1980 Hofstede offered his famous description of cultural dimensions. Geert Hofstede collected and analyzed a large data base of employee values scores of IBM between 1967 and 1973 .it was included more than 70 countries. He first used the 40 largest countries and then extended the analysis to 50 countries and 3 regions. From t Communication Media for Banking Industry Communication Media for Banking Industry Chapter 1: Introduction Introduction Todays world is world of technology. Everyday a new technology is introduced that can assist people in order to do their daily works easily and finally increase the quality of their life. These new technologies help their users in different aspects of their life, by saving time, doing works faster and better with lower level of error. The rapid development of information technology has brought unprecedented influence on the life of millions of people around the globe. Various activities were handled electronically through the adoption of IT in the workplace or at home, for example, e-mail, e-commerce and e-government (Guriting and Ndubisi, 2006). One of these technologies that effects most people around the world is Internet, which was born in the last years of 20 century and rapidly broke boundaries, time and place. It brought more easily communication ways from usual daily activities to high level official activities. Online shopping and paying is a symbol of developing internet te chnology. People can stay at home, be at their work place, or their car or any other place, and order their food, clothes , shoes and pay online and receive their orders without spending time for going to the shopping center or finding parking .so online paying helped its users saved their time and their money. Next generation of online paying is internet banking, which means doing transactions online without going to the bank, staying in long queues, and without direct face-to-face interacting. The terms of PC banking, online banking, Internet banking, and mobile banking refer to a number of ways in which customers can access their banks without having to be physically present at a bank branch. PC Banking relates to every banking business transacted from a customers PC. This can be done through online banking, in which bank transactions are conducted within a closed network, or via Internet banking, which permits the customer to perform transactions from any terminal with access to the Internet. Mobile banking is the implementation of banking and trading transactions using an Internet-enabled wireless device. (Mobile phones, PDAs, handheld computers, etc.). Thus mobile banking (m-banking) is a subset of Internet banking, I banking, (Hazell and Raphael, 2001) The banking industry is using the new communication media to offer its services to the customers with convenience. Using Internet banking and its nearest technology, mobile banking, is increased during these years around the world. Malaysian penetration of Internet banking and mobile banking, as the base infrastructure for this paper, is mentioned as below: In all five continents, penetration of internet and mobile banking are rapidly increasing. Especially in most developed countries, trend of internet banking is increasing, also using mobile banking, is increasing. Most of Europe has embraced GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) as a format for wireless technology. This more standardized wireless telecommunications infrastructure has yielded a higher level of acceptance and penetration, which has led to speculation that Europe will drive innovations in wireless communications, this technology can use to do both internet banking and mobile banking. Although still need time to adapt the mobile banking. In most countries this service is available but Because of its price and some uncertainty about its security, mobile banking is not popular yet. North America represents the flip side of the European situation. Wireless communications, though far from rare, lag behind Europes penetration levels, while participation in the wired I nternet is the highest in the world. The North American wireless infrastructure is not as widespread as standardized as its European counterpart. In the Middle East, has secured 15 wireless infrastructure contracts in regional markets over the last 12 months, most recently in Kuwait. Motorolas work in Kuwait involves a $14 million contract with wireless GSM operator MTC to implement a countrywide capacity enhancement. The dual-band network implementation will enable cell phones to utilize the most efficient network route and frequency, thus optimizing network performance. In spite of the fact that internet and mobile banking has rapidly growth in all countries, but still there are people from developing countries that do not interest in use this facility. People of these countries are concerning about their personal information, privacy and security, and these are factors that will increase their uncertainty level of using internet banking(East African and West African countries in Malaysia interviewing). This anxiety can refer to their cultural background. culture can refer to the customs and beliefs of a nation that stay with people for years, and changing of fundamental of this culture is not possible easily. So culture of a country can affect the culture of sub-societies in that country, such as organizational culture, educational culture and etc. So each nation and country has especial fundamental in order to go to the technology world and use technology as an assistant in their life. Statement of the Problem According to the previous discussion, although there is rapidly increasing in internet banking penetration but still there is some unsafe feeling towards it. That means there are factors that can affect acceptance and adaption of a technology, beside existing factors such as usefulness, ease of use, subjective norm and etc. While essential research has been directed toward understanding the adoption and diffusion of IT (Prescott and Conger, 1995), there have been a few studies that specifically examine possible cultural effects on the adoption and dispersion of new information technologies (Raman and Wei, 1992). Research on the impact of corporate culture on IT acceptance provides a useful viewpoint (Cooper, 1994; Kydd and Jones, 1989) but ethnic or national culture research undoubtedly has a special character. The problem to be investigated is that there is no enough research that works on the effect of national culture on acceptance a technology. Thereafter This study examines the role of culture on technology acceptance model (TAM) adaption and tries to give an in depth view of Hofstede Cultural Dimensions towards acceptance of a technology (Power distance index:PID, Individualism/collectivism, Uncertainty avoidance). It is hoped that conclusions can be drawn and opened a window for managers and all who want to bring world of technology to their life and work. Research Objective The main aim of this paper is finding the role of culture in acceptance a new technology. That can be interpreted to culture role on the Technology Acceptance Model. Beside the main objective this study pursues following objectives: Giving the overall view of Hofstede Cultural Dimensions in different countries base on their Power Distance Index, Individualism/Collectivism and Uncertainty avoidance Opening a new window for all who work in IT and IS implementing, to bring technology in multinational and international organizations. Handling the problem that faced in multi-cultural society according to each person cultural background. Research Questions Main question can be draw as below: Is there any effect by Hofstede cultural dimensions (PDI, IND/CLV, UAI) on TAM This main question can be expended as below: Is there any effect by Hofstede cultural dimensions (PDI, IND/CLV, UAI) on Perceived Usefulness (PU)? Is there any effect by Hofstede cultural dimensions (PDI, IND/CLV, UAI) on Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU)? Is there any effect by Hofstede cultural dimensions (PDI, IND/CLV, UAI) on Subjective Norm (SN)? Is there any effect by Hofstede cultural dimensions (PDI, IND/CLV, UAI) on Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC)? Is there any effect by Hofstede cultural dimensions (PDI, IND/CLV, UAI) on Behavioral Intention(BI) to use internet banking? Scope of the Study In order to achieve the best results in finding different attitude towards technology acceptance (Internet banking) among different people from different nations, student of four universities in Malaysia have been selected to administer the questionnaire in order to examine attitude towards internet and mobile banking. Because of large scope of this study and necessity of collaboration of more than 30 countries from the five continents in Malaysia, embassy of ten countries and their referees took part in this research by filling up questionnaires that was distributed by hand and by e-mail, also staffs of some international organizations in Malaysia cooperate in this research, and the last one, social networks such as facebook came to assist this paper by finding the different others countries communities in Malaysia. Significance of the Study As firms internationalize, there is a growing need to understand how cultural factors might affect a multinational organizations ability to adopt and utilize IT. Further studies may lead to knowledge that will help IT researchers and practitioners in improving the technology transfer process. Such knowledge will be worth to practitioners, because it could spell the difference between achievement and collapse in implementing IT. In the movement toward globalization of markets and corporate multinationalism, the value of more cross-cultural research is clear (Cash, McFarlan, McKenney and Applegate, 1992). In a large survey of information systems more than half of the respondents felt that global IT issues were keys to their firms future success (Ives and Jarvenpaa, 1991). As firms grow their operations in the international arena, there is a need to exploit the power of IT to communicate among these widespread locations and to coordinate activities both within and across countries. Henc e, it is important for the managers of these firms to learn, as much as they can, about the cross-cultural adoption and use of IT (Couger,1986; Kumar and Andersen,1990) Such understanding can make the distinction between success and failure in executing information technology and system. The study will be clear the differences and similarities between countries cultures, and will give nations attitude towards technology acceptance. This study will be the first one that combines culture and TAM across the five continents. The result can assists managers and technology developers around the world in order to apply IT through international organization. The unique results of this study can be a base for future research and open a window to work on TAM as viewpoint of culture. Summary and Organization of the Remaining Chapters The main part of the dissertation is divided into five Chapters, which will be briefly introduced: Chapter1: Introduction The introduction section a projects a brief overview of the study is provided. Chapter 2: Literature Review In this section, selected academic literature related to Technology acceptance model, related theory and Hofstede cultural dimension and its related academic literatures. Then conceptual framework and steps to developing the hypothesis are discussed. Chapter 3: Methodology The methodology section critically examines a range of research approaches and techniques. Sample and the size of samples, also one of the most important for this study, finding the sample from different countries who stay in Malaysia for study or work. The research technique that is selected for this study is Design of Experiment. Chapter 4: Analysis and Results In the analytical section, the research findings are explained briefly according to the data collection and analysis. Chapter 5: Discussion In discussion section the further interpretation and explanation the findings is provided and comparisons is made between the findings with other literature in the area of the study. Then the findings are summarized; recommendations for future research and the practicing manager are made. Chapter 2: Literature Review Introduction This chapter is included of backgrounds and literatures in Technology acceptance Model, Hofstede cultural Dimensions and previous researchs including of cultural role on TAM. This chapter will prove the unique work of this paper. Framework, definitions and hypothesis development for this study, will mention and discuss in this chapter. Technology Acceptance Model Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is one of the most influential extensions of Ajzen and Fishbeins theory of reasoned action (TRA) that has been widely used to predict user acceptance and use based on perceived usefulness and ease of use. According to TRA, an individuals behavioural intention, which results in actual behaviour, is influenced by person subject norm and attitude, and the attitude is influenced by individual beliefs (Ajzen Fishbein, 1980). According to the Davis (1989), TAM hypothesizes that behavioural intention is a significant determinant of actual system use, and that behavioural intention is determined by two relevant beliefs, perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use. In TAM, an individuals principle determines the attitude toward using the system. The attitude develops the intention to use. Perceived usefulness is related to productivity but perceived ease-of-use is related to effort (Venkatesh, 1999). This intention influences the decision of actual technology usage. These causalities were largely studied and accepted (Suh and Han, 2002; Morris and Dillon, 1997; Teo, Lim, Lai, 1999). The most significant results of Davis study was the strong relation between Usefulness and Usage. Users of a technology try to cope with difficulties of a system, although difficulty of use can discourage adoption of a useful system, no amount of ease of use can give back for a system that does not perform a useful function.TAM used in several IS studies and proved useful determining technology acceptance, especially to explain computer usage behaviour. This justifies why TAM is suitable for studies in computer acceptance. Given the rising popularity of Electronic_ Commerce technology such as Internet banking and Mobile Banking and the dynamic user behaviors identified above, the TAM is a suitable framework for this study. There are other widely used and well known frameworks, such as uses and gratification or diffusion of innovation, but the TAM is considered the best fit for this study because other frameworks focus on different levels of analysis (macro, mezzo, or micro) or differ ent topics of emphasis (diffusion mechanisms, etc.). If modified appropriately, the TAM is the most effective tool for a study like this one, which investigates factors relating to usage and adoption, such as cultural dimensions. (Suh et al., 2002; Morris et al., 1997; Teo et al., 1999). The TAM was stimulated by the theory of reasoned action(1980), which argues that both the attitude toward an action and subjective norms have an impact on behavioral intention, which in turn affects how people perform an action. The TAM was an early attempt to apply psychological factors to information systems and computer adoption. It assumed that perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use were major influences on an individuals attitude toward using technology and, thus, ultimately, were related to actual use (Davis, 1989). Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) has been widely used to predict user acceptance and use based on perceived usefulness and ease of use (Davis, 1989). TAM conceives that behavioural intention is a significant determinant of actual system use, and that behavioural intention is determined by two main beliefs, perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use. The perceived usefulness refers to the degree to which an individual believes that using a particular system would enhance his/her job performance. The perceived ease of use refers to the degree to which an individual believes that using a particular system would be free of physical and mental efforts. In TAM, an individuals belief settles on the attitude toward using the system and, in turn, the attitude develops the intention to use. This intention influences the decision of actual technology usage. With the bang of the Internet and convergence technologies, researchers have modified TAM to demonstrate the empirical evidences of it in the convergence context. In fact, many researchers have proposed various extended TAM. For instance, Moon and Kim (2001) suggest a model where perceived playfulness was described as one of the antecedents of attitude toward Web surfing. They noted that most prior TAM research had focused only on extrinsic motivation, not on intrinsic motivation. Morris and Dillon (1997) found that TAM contributes to the prediction of individual usage of software. The motivational model that was adapted by Davis, Bagozzi, Warshaw (1992) employs two key constructs: extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. According to Venkatesh and Speier (1999), extrinsic motivation refers to the performance of an activity. Extrinsic motivation is perceived to help achieve valued outcomes that are distinct from the activity itself, such as improving job performance, pay, etc. Intrinsic motivation refers to the performance of an activity for no reason other than the process of performing it. In the case of technology a cceptance studies, perceived usefulness is an example of extrinsic motivation. Davis et al. (1992) found that perceived enjoyment was significantly related to the perceived ease of use. In the research on the usage intentions for information systems, Heijden (2004) adds perceived an enjoyment to TAM model. Cheong and Park (2005) also develop a more comprehensive version of TAM to better reflect mobile Internet context. Their model employs perceived playfulness, contents quality, system quality, Internet experience and perceived price level, in addition to perceived usefulness and ease of use. For the mobile services, Nysveen et al. (2005) investigate the consumers intention to use mobile services, which shows the four overall influences on usage intention: motivational influences, attitudinal influences, normative pressure, and perceived control. Similarly, Fogelgren-Pedersen (2005) found that connection stability and geographic coverage are one of the significant variables of perceived relative advantage in mobile Internet. Also, in the worldwide mobile Internet user survey, Fife (2005) found that perceived enhanced utility of mobile services are the strong value motivating use of mobile technology. While these studies found the significant perceived variables, they still do not find variables specific to mobile Internet. Viswanath Venkatesh, Morris, B.Davis, D.Davis (2003) worked on this issue an d eight prominent models are discussed, the eight models and their extensions are empirically compared, a unified model is formulated that integrates elements across the eight models, and the unified model is empirically validated. Using data from four organizations over a six-month period with three points of measurement, the eight models explained between 17% and 53% of the variance in user intentions to use information technology. Next, a unified model, called the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT), was formulated, with four core determinants of intention and usage, and up to four moderators of key relationships. UTAUT provides a useful tool for managers needing to assess the likelihood of success for new technology introductions and helps them understand the drivers of acceptance in order to proactively design interventions targeted at populations of users that may be less inclined to adopt and use new systems. Theory of reason Action(TRA) Drawn from social Psychology.TRA is one of the most fundamental and inflectional theories of human behaviour. It has been used to predict a wide range of behaviours .Davis et al.(1989) applied TRA to individual acceptance of technology and found that the variance explained was largely consistent with studies that employed TRA in context of other behaviours Technology Acceptance Model(TAM) TAM is tailored to IS contexts, and was designed to predict information technology acceptance and usage on the job. Unlike TRA, the final conceptualization of TAM excludes the attitude construct in order to better explain intention parsimoniously. TAM2 extended TAM by including subjective norm as an additional predictor of intention in the case of mandatory settings (Venkatesh and Davis 2000). TAM has been widely applied to a diverse set of technologies and users. Theory of Planned Behaviour TPB extended TRA by adding the construct of perceived behavioural control is theorized to be an additional determinant of intention and behavioural .Ajzan(1991) presented a review of several studies they successfully used TPB to predict intention and behaviour in a wide variety of settings. TPB has been successfully applied to the understanding of individual acceptance and usage of many different technologies (Tailor and Todd, 1995). A related model is the Decomposed Theory of Planned Behaviour (DTPB). In terms of predicting intention, DTPB is identical to TPB. In contrast to TPB but similar to TAM, DTPB decomposes attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioural control into its the underlying belief structure within technology adaption contexts. Combined TAM and TPB It is a combination of TPB TAM to provide a hybrid model (Taylor and Todd,1995) Innovation Diffusion Theory (IDT) Grounded in sociology, IDT (Rogers 1964) has been used since the 1960s to study a variety of innovations, ranging from agricultural tools to organizational innovation (Tornatzky and Klein 1982). Within information systems, Moore and Benbasat (1991) adapted the characteristics of innovations presented in Rogers and refined a set of constructs that could be used to study individual technology acceptance. Moore and Benbasat (1996) found support for the predictive validity of these innovation Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) One of the most powerful theories of human behavior is social cognitive theory (Bandura 1986). Compeau and Higgins (1995) applied and extended SCT to the context of computer; while Compeau and Higgins (1995) also employed SCT, it was to study performance and thus is outside the goal of the current research. Compeau and Higgins'(1995) model studied computer use but the nature of the model and the underlying theory allow it to be extended to acceptance and use of information technology in general. The original model of Compeau and Higgins (1995) used usage as a dependent variable but in keeping with the spirit of predicting individual acceptance, In 2008, Ima, I., Kim, Y., Han, H. did a revising research on Venkatesh work. They claimed that in previous study there seem to be two critical factors that are overlooked or have received inadequate attention—perceived risk (PR) and technology type. PR has been recognized as an important factor and was modelled as a precursor of perceived usefulness (PU), and a sub construct of others, such as trust (or as its precursor). In their study PR and technology type, consider as additional to the moderating variables in UTAUT and was tested how they moderate the effects of PU and PEU on users intention to use a technology. It was shown the PR and technology type were moderating variables. Kim (2006) added two new constructs, Perceived Cost Savings and Companys Willingness to Fund, and two causal relationships, Job Relevance and Experience, as moderating effects to previous existing model and proved that there is a strong significant relationships between PCS and CWTF and behaviral i ntention to use a technology. also moderating effects of job relevance was proved , also found that an individuals intention to use mobile wireless technology was significantly affected by CWF. Kim claimed that a company must provide technology to their employees to help them perform their jobs. Finally, the individuals adopt a technology if it is within their prior experience, which was found to be significant moderator between CWF and BI. Prior studies based on TAM did not examine the direct link from self-efficacy to behavioral intention assuming the full mediation of perceived ease of use but Khalifa (2008) integrated the theory of planned behavior (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975; Ajzen and Madden, 1986) and the technology acceptance model (TAM) (Davis, 1989) to explain the adoption of m-commerce as a new technology. He added subjective norm to the main block of TAM as an factors that have positive direct effect on the individuals intention and Self-efficacy as a positive direct effec t on the individuals intention to adopt m-commerce. During the years researchers examined different items and their relations with TAM models, they have used original framework of TAM and found relation between them. In paper by June Lu at el.(2008) was worked on different aspects of new technology in china, such as WMDS, these items are type of technology ,functionality of that technology, interface design, Personal innovativeness in information technology (PIIT), Facilitating conditions, Social influences ,security, trust , privacy and reliability of that technology. The result of this paper showed that intention to use WMDS via mobile phones in China was dependent on an individuals perceptual beliefs about the target services in terms of their usefulness and eases of use, and also relied on PIIT and mobile trust belief. According to Dong-Hee Shin(2007) , who work on Wi-Bro acceptance in Korea, users perceptions are significantly associated with their motivation to use Wi-Bro. Specifically, perceived quality and perceived availability are found to have significant effect on users extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. These factors play as enhancing factors to attitudes and intention. In 2005, Kim et al. Work on a Value-based Adoption of a technology such as mobile banking. A Value-based Adoption Model (VAM) would be able to capture the monetary sacrifice element and present adoption as a comparison of benefits and costs. By combination of Value-based Adoption Model (VAM) of M-Internet and by integrating the most relevant findings of the technology adoption and value literature, Kim(2005) designed its framework by dividing it to benefits and sacrifices. He suggested that customers evaluation of a product includes both cognitive and affective elements, and that products are purchased for their utilitarian and hedonic benefits, so it can be proved that usefulness and enjoyment as the benefit components of perceived value. Perceived sacrifices are both monetary and non-monetary. Monetary spending includes the actual price of the product, and it is generally measured based on customers perceptions of the actual price paid. Non-monetary costs usually include time, effo rt and other unsatisfactory spending for the purchase and consumption of the product. Yang (2004) did a research that examines different items that could affect technology acceptance. Innovation, past adaption behaviour, knowledge, technology cluster, age, gender and specialization were items that were tested in relation with technology acceptance in Yang study. He provided insights into the relationships between PU, PEOU, AT, consumer innovation adoption behaviour, and demographic variables and also offers empirical data to support the suitability of the TAM through examining the emerging M-commerce technology and application. PU is found to predict consumer adoption of M-commerce. Consumer innovativeness introduced into the TAM research to expand the scope of TAM applicability to M-commerce that is yet to accumulate a critical mass in the diffusion process. According to the Lo ´ pez-Nicola ´ s, Molina-Castillo, Harry Bouwman (2008), social factors are the important factors that influence on peoples decision to adopt a new technology such as mobile services. They try to evaluate the impact of different determinants on Behavioural Intention in the adoption of advanced mobile services, by combining acceptance models with diffusion theory models theory. In particular, we assumed that social influence may be a key element in peoples intention to use the services and applications. Social influence was defined as the degree to which individuals believed that others thought they should use advanced mobile services. The views of friends and relatives have a significant impact on using mobile services, Lo ´ pez-Nicola ´ s et al. proved that as a manager, that PEOU and behavioural intention depended significantly on social influences, so for bringing new services and technologies for organisations, notice to the employees cultural backgrou nd is important. In a study by Amin (2008) who used original TAM model to finding factors affecting the intentions of customers in Malaysia to use mobile banking, proved that bank managers should create favourable perceptions concerning the usefulness and ease of use among mobile phone credit card customers. Creating these positive perceptions might be achieved by offering free seminars to customers about the ease of use of the system Malaysian consumers often take up marketing initiatives of this type. Additionally, the banks should provide a mini-guide at all branches that provides succinct and cogent information concerning the efficiency, effectiveness and risk-free attributes of the mobile phone credit card system. In 2009 GU, Lee, Suh, integrated the fragmented models such as the extended TAM and the trust-based TAM into a unified model of mobile banking. They found that self-efficiency is the strongest antecedent of perceived ease-of-use, which directly and indirectly affected behavioural intention through perceived usefulness, also was found the structural assurances are the strongest antecedent of trust, which could increase behavioural intention of mobile banking. Gu et al. research was listed most important work on technology acceptance that used TAM as base. For example Taylor and Todd (1995) selected computing resource center and worked on usefulness, ease of use, attitude and behavioural intention, they worked on Subjective norm and Perceived behavioural control as their study antecedence (complete list of work on TAM was brought in Appendix A) Hofstede Cultural dimensions: Culture has been defined according to several perspectives. Definitions go from the most complex and the most comprehensive (e.g. Kluckhohn, 1962) to the most simple (e.g. Triandis, 1972, Hofstede, 1997). According to Kluckhohn (1962), Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement of human groups, including their embodiments in artifacts (p.73). Hofstede cultural dimensions served as the most influential culture theory among social science research (Nokata and Sivakumar, 2001). In addition, Hofstede cultural framework has also received strong empirical support by Sondergaard work (1994).Geert Hofstede research gives insights into other cultures so that it will be more effective when interacting with people in other countries. If understood and applied properly, this information should reduce level of nuisance, concern, and distress. But most important, Geert Hofstede will give the edge of understanding which translates to more successful results. In 1980 Hofstede offered his famous description of cultural dimensions. Geert Hofstede collected and analyzed a large data base of employee values scores of IBM between 1967 and 1973 .it was included more than 70 countries. He first used the 40 largest countries and then extended the analysis to 50 countries and 3 regions. From t